The World Order

Quigley

THE

AMERICAN
ESTABLISHMENT

BOOKS

IN
FOCUS

Carroll Quigley

S2C00

(continued from front flap]

THE

ANGLO-AMERICAN

ESTABLISHMENT

On rate occasions a book is publish-
ed which must forever alter the way in
which we view the world, around u$ L
Within a short while t it becomes diffi-
cult to understand how we could have
functioned without the knowledge
gained from it. The Anglo-American
Establishment is such a book. In it
Professor Carroll Quigley presents
crucial "keys" without which 20th
century political, economic, and
military events can never be fully
understood. The reader will see that
this applies to events past— present
—and future-
While the notion of conspiratorial in-
fluence on world events has gained
Credence with both extremities of the
American political spectrum, and to a
degree with the general public, the
more academically-oriented person
has tended to downplay such in-
fluence, largely because of the lack of
scholarship in the presentation and
analysis of the facts by those support-
ing the conspiracy theories. In addi-
tion, many such supporters have
made themselves easy to ignore and,
in fact, have themselves always
assumed that they would be ignored.
Professor Quigley's work does not suf-
fer from these defects. The evidence
he presents here appears irrefutable:

Icnntiitued an back flap)

the analysis— brilliant. In his own
words:

"It is not easy for an outsider to
write the history of a secret group of
this kind, but . . . it should be done, for
this group is. as I shall show, one of
the most important historical facts of
the twentieth century. , . I suppose in
the long view my attitude would not
be far different from that of the (socie-
ty) . . . but agreeing with the group on
goals, I cannot agree with them on
methods- . . In this group were per-
sons who must command the admira-
tion and affection of all who know of
them. On the other hand, in this group
were person? whose lives have been a
disaster to our way of life, Unfortu-
nately . . . the influence of the latter
kind has been stronger ... I have been
told that the story I relate here would
be better left untold .the last thing
I should wish is that anything I write
could be used by the anglophobes . . ,
but I feel the truth . . , once told . . ,
can be of injury to no men of good
will."

Carroll Quigley (1910-1977) was a
highly respected professor at the
School of Foreign Service at George-
town University, He was an instructor
at Princeton and Harvard; a consul-
tant to the U.S. Department of De-
fense, the House Committee on As-
tronautics and Space Exploration; and
the U.S. Navy. His other major works
include Evolution of Civilization
and Tragedy and /fcj?e— a History of
The World in Our Time.

Jacket design : Mary Anne Koean

BOOKS IN FOCUS. INC,
160 E. 38 ST., NY, 10OT6

Carroll Quigley
11910-1977}

"No country that values its safety should allow what the Milner
group accomplished— that is. that a small number of men would
be able to wield such power in administration and politics, should
be given almost complete control over the publication of docu-
ments relating to their actions, should be able to exercise such in-
fluence over the avenues of information that create public opinion,
and should be able to monopolize so completely the writing and
the teaching of the history of their own period/'

Carroll Quigley
The Anglo-American Establishment

ISBN 0-916728-50-1

The Anglo-American Establishment

The

Anglo- American

Establishment

FROM RHODES TO CLIVEDEN

Carroll Quigley

Books In Focus

Copyright © 1981 by Books in Focus, Inc.

All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form, mechanical or electronic, without written
permission from Books in Focus, Inc., except by a reviewer who may
quote brief passages in connection with a review.

Manufactured in the United States of America

Books in Focus, Inc.
P.O. Box 3481
Grand Central Station
New York, N.Y. 10163

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Quigley, Carroll.

The Anglo-American establishment.

Includes index.

1 . Great Britain — Foreign relations — 20th century.

2. Commonwealth of Nations.

3. Rhodes, Cecil John, 1853-1902.

4. Milner, Alfred Milner, Viscount, 1854-1925.

5. Secret societies — England. I. Title.
DA566.7.Q5 325'.32'06041 80-70620
ISBN 0-916728-50-1 AACR2

Contents

Publisher's Note vii

Preface ix

1 Introduction 3

2 The Cecil Bloc 15

3 The Secret Society of Cecil Rhodes 33

4 Milner's Kindergarten, 1897-1910 .51

5 The Milner Group, Rhodes, and Oxford, 1901-1925 . 84

6 The Times 101

7 The Round Table 117

8 War and Peace, 1915-1920 140

9 The Creation of the Commonwealth 148

10 The Royal Institute of International Affairs 182

11 India, 1911-1945 198

12 Foreign Policy, 1919-1940 227

13 The Second World War, 1939-1945 303
Appendix: A Tentative Roster of the Milner Group 31 1
Notes 317
Index 337

Publisher's Note

ON very rare occasions a book appears which forever changes the
way in which we perceive the world around us. Within a short while it
becomes hard to understand how we could have functioned without
the knowledge gained from it. The Anglo-American Establishment is
such a book. In it Professor Carroll Quigley presents certain "keys"
crucial to the understanding of 20th century political, economic and
military events -events of the past, present, and future. That the nar-
rative ends in 1949 does not detract in any way from what is presented,
and its great value. It does, however, break open the way for current
writers and students to work more effectively in their areas.

The fact that Carroll Quigley, a highly respected professor at
Georgetown University and an instructor at Princeton and Harvard,
could not find a publisher for this work, is in itself significant.

How Books in Focus came to discover the existence of the
manuscript is a story in itself, which began on a beach in Lindos on the
Mediterranean island of Rhodes, in 1967, eight years before the com-
pany was formed; but that story will have to be told at a later time.

Stephen A. Zarlenga
Publisher

January 8, 1981

Preface

The Rhodes Scholarships, established by the terms of Cecil Rhodes's
seventh will, are known to everyone. What is not so widely known is
that Rhodes in five previous wills left his fortune to form a secret
society, which was to devote itself to the preservation and expansion of
the British Empire. And what does not seem to be known to anyone is
that this secret society was created by Rhodes and his principal trustee,
Lord Milner, and continues to exist to this day. To be sure, this secret
society is not a childish thing like the Ku Klux Klan, and it does not
have any secret robes, secret handclasps, or secret passwords. It does
not need any of these, since its members know each other intimately. It
probably has no oaths of secrecy nor any formal procedure of initia-
tion. It does, however, exist and holds secret meetings, over which the
senior member present presides. At various times since 1891, these
meetings have been presided over by Rhodes, Lord Milner, Lord
Selborne, Sir Patrick Duncan, Field Marshal Jan Smuts, Lord Lothian,
and Lord Brand. They have been held in all the British Dominions,
starting in South Africa about 1903; in various places in London,
chiefly 175 Piccadilly; at various colleges at Oxford, chiefly All Souls;
and at many English country houses such as Tring Park, Blickling Hall,
Cliveden, and others.

This society has been known at various times as Milner's
Kindergarten, as the Round Table Group, as the Rhodes crowd, as The
Times crowd, as the All Souls group, and as the Cliveden set. All of
these terms are unsatisfactory, for one reason or another, and I have
chosen to call it the Milner Group. Those persons who have used the
other terms, or heard them used, have not generally been aware that
all these various terms referred to the same Group.

It is not easy for an outsider to write the history of a secret group of
this kind, but, since no insider is going to do it, an outsider must at-
tempt it. It should be done, for this Group is, as I shall show, one of the
most important historical facts of the twentieth century. Indeed, the

ix

x / Preface

Group is of such significance that evidence of its existence is not hard to
find, if one knows where to look. This evidence I have sought to point
out without overly burdening this volume with footnotes and bib-
liographical references. While such evidences of scholarship are kept at
a minimum, I believe I have given the source of every fact which I
mention. Some of these facts came to me from sources which I am not
permitted to name, and I have mentioned them only where I can pro-
duce documentary evidence available to everyone. Nevertheless, it
would have been very difficult to write this book if I had not received a
certain amount of assistance of a personal nature from persons close to
the Group. For obvious reasons, I cannot reveal the names of such per-
sons, so I have not made reference to any information de-
rived from them unless it was information readily available from other
sources.

Naturally, it is not possible for an outsider to write about a secret
group without falling into errors. There are undoubtedly errors in
what follows. I have tried to keep these at a minimum by keeping the
interpretation at a minimum and allowing the facts to speak for
themselves. This will serve as an excuse for the somewhat excessive use
of quotations. I feel that there is no doubt at all about my general inter-
pretation. I also feel that there are few misstatements of fact, except in
one most difficult matter. This difficulty arises from the problem of
knowing just who is and who is not a member of the Group. Since
membership may not be a formal matter but based rather on frequent
social association, and since the frequency of such association varies
from time to time and from person to person, it is not always easy to say
who is in the Group and who is not. I have tried to solve this difficulty
by dividing the Group into two concentric circles: an inner core of in-
timate associates, who unquestionably knew that they were members
of a group devoted to a common purpose; and an outer circle of a
larger number, on whom the inner circle acted by personal persuasion,
patronage distribution, and social pressure. It is probable that most
members of the outer circle were not conscious that they were being
used by a secret society. More likely they knew it, but, English fashion,
felt it discreet to ask no questions. The ability of Englishmen of this
class and background to leave the obvious unstated, except perhaps in
obituaries, is puzzling and sometimes irritating to an outsider. In
general, I have undoubtedly made mistakes in my lists of members, but
the mistakes, such as they are, are to be found rather in my attribution
of any particular person to the outer circle instead of the inner core,
rather than in my connecting him to the Group at all. In general, I
have attributed no one to the inner core for whom I do -not have
evidence, convincing to me, that he attended the secret meetings of the
Group. As a result, several persons whom I place in the outer circle,

Preface / xi

such as Lord Halifax, should probably be placed in the inner core.

I should say a few words about my general attitude toward this sub-
ject. I approached the subject as a historian. This attitude I have kept.
I have tried to describe or to analyze, not to praise or to condemn. I
hope that in the book itself this attitude is maintained. Of course I have
an attitude, and it would be only fair to state it here. In general, I
agree with the goals and aims of the Milner Group. I feel that the
British way of life and the British Commonwealth of Nations are
among the great achievements of all history. I feel that the destruction
of either of them would be a terrible disaster to mankind. I feel that the
withdrawal of Ireland, of Burma, of India, or of Palestine from the
Commonwealth is regrettable and attributable to the fact that the per-
sons in control of these areas failed to absorb the British way of life
while they were parts of the Commonwealth. I suppose, in the long
view, my attitude would not be far different from that of the members
of the Milner Group. But, agreeing with the Group on goals, I cannot
agree with them on methods. To be sure, I realize that some of their
methods were based on nothing but good intentions and high
ideals — higher ideals than mine, perhaps. But their lack of perspective
in critical moments, their failure to use intelligence and common sense,
their tendency to fall back on standardized social reactions and verbal
cliches in a crisis, their tendency to place power and influence into
hands chosen by friendship rather than merit, their oblivion to the con-
sequences of their actions, their ignorance of the point of view of per-
sons in other countries or of persons in other classes in their own coun-
try—these things, it seems to me, have brought many of the things
which they and I hold dear close to disaster. In this Group were persons
like Esher, Grey, Milner, Hankey, and Zimmern, who must command
the admiration and affection of all who know of them. On the other
hand, in this Group were persons whose lives have been a disaster to
our way of life. Unfortunately, in the long run, both in the Group and
in the world, the influence of the latter kind has been stronger than the
influence of the former.

This has been my personal attitude. Little of it, I hope, has
penetrated to the pages which follow. I have been told that the story I
relate here would be better left untold, since it would provide ammuni-
tion for the enemies of what I admire. I do not share this view. The last
thing I should wish is that anything I write could be used by the
Anglophobes and isolationists of the Chicago Tribune. But I feel that
the truth has a right to be told, and, once told, can be an injury to no
men of good will. Only by a knowledge of the errors of the past is it
possible to correct the tactics of the future.

1949 C.Q.

The Anglo-American Establishment

1

Introduction

One wintry afternoon in February 1891, three men were engaged in
earnest conversation in London. From that conversation were to flow
consequences of the greatest importance to the British Empire and to
the world as a whole. For these men were organizing a secret society
that was, for more than fifty years, to be one of the most important
forces in the formulation and execution of British imperial and foreign
policy.

The three men who were thus engaged were already well known in
England. The leader was Cecil Rhodes, fabulously wealthy empire-
builder and the most important person in South Africa. The second was
William T. Stead, the most famous, and probably also the most sensa-
tional, journalist of the day. The third was Reginald Baliol Brett, later
known as Lord Esher, friend and confidant of Queen Victoria, and
later to be the most influential adviser of King Edward VII and King
George V.

The details of this important conversation will be examined later. At
present we need only point out that the three drew up a plan of
organization for their secret society and a list of original members. The
plan of organization provided for an inner circle, to be known as "The
Society of the Elect," and an outer circle, to be known as "The Associa-
tion of Helpers." Within The Society of the Elect, the real power was to
be exercised by the leader, and a "Junta of Three." The leader was to
be Rhodes, and the Junta was to be Stead, Brett, and Alfred Milner. In
accordance with this decision, Milner was added to the society by Stead
shortly after the meeting we have described. 1

The creation of this secret society was not a matter of a moment. As
we shall see, Rhodes had been planning for this event for more than
seventeen years. Stead had been introduced to the plan on 4 April
1889, and Brett had been told of it on 3 February 1890. Nor was the
society thus founded an ephemeral thing, for, in modified form, it ex-
ists to this day. From 1891 to 1902, it was known to only a score of per-

3

4 / The Anglo-American Establishment

sons. During this period, Rhodes was leader, and Stead was the most
influential member. From 1902 to 1925, Milner was leader, while
Philip Kerr (Lord Lothian) and Lionel Curtis were probably the most
important members. From 1925 to 1940, Kerr was leader, and since his
death in 1940 this role has probably been played by Robert Henry
Brand (now Lord Brand).

During this period of almost sixty years, this society has been called
by various names. During the first decade or so it was called "the secret
society of Cecil Rhodes" or "the dream of Cecil Rhodes." In the second
and third decades of its existence it was known as "Milner's
Kindergarten" (1901-1910) and as "the Round Table Group"
(1910-1920). Since 1920 it has been called by various names, depending
on which phase of its activities was being examined. It has been called
"The Times crowd," "the Rhodes crowd," the "Chatham House
crowd," the "All Souls group," and the "Cliveden set." All of these
terms were more or less inadequate, because they focused attention on
only part of the society or on only one of its activities. The Milner
Kindergarten and the Round Table Group, for example, were two dif-
ferent names for The Association of Helpers and were thus only part of
the society, since the real center of the organization, The Society of the
Elect, continued to exist and recruited new members from the outer
circle as seemed necessary. Since 1920, this Group has been in-
creasingly dominated by the associates of Viscount Astor. In the 1930s,
the misnamed "Cliveden set" was close to the center of the society, but
it would be entirely unfair to believe that the connotations of super-
ficiality and conspiracy popularly associated with the expression
"Cliveden set" are a just description of the Milner Group as a whole. In
fact, Viscount Astor was, relatively speaking, a late addition to the
society, and the society should rather be pictured as utilizing the Astor
money to further their own ideals rather than as being used for any
purpose by the master of Cliveden.

Even the expression "Rhodes secret society," which would be per-
fectly accurate in reference to the period 1891-1899, would hardly be
accurate for the period after 1899. The organization was so modified
and so expanded by Milner after the eclipse of Stead in 1899, and
especially after the death of Rhodes in 1902, that it took on quite a dif-
ferent organization and character, although it continued to pursue the
same goals. To avoid this difficulty, we shall generally call the
organization the "Rhodes secret society" before 1901 and "the Milner
Group" after this date, but it must be understood that both terms refer
to the same organization.

This organization has been able to conceal its existence quite suc-
cessfully, and many of its most influential members, satisfied to possess
the reality rather than the appearance of power, are unknown even to

Introduction / 5

close students of British history. This is the more surprising when we
learn that one of the chief methods by which this Group works has been
through propaganda. It plotted the Jameson Raid of 1895; it caused the
Boer War of 1899-1902; it set up and controls the Rhodes Trust; it
created the Union of South Africa in 1906-1910; it established the
South African periodical The State in 1908; it founded the British Em-
pire periodical The Round Table in 1910, and this remains the
mouthpiece of the Group; it has been the most powerful single in-
fluence in All Souls, Balliol, and New Colleges at Oxford for more than
a generation; it has controlled The Times for more than fifty years,
with the exception of the three years 1919-1922; it publicized the idea
of and the name "British Commonwealth of Nations" in the period
1908-1918; it was the chief influence in Lloyd George's war ad-
ministration in 1917-1919 and dominated the British delegation to the
Peace Conference of 1919; it had a great deal to do with the formation
and management of the League of Nations and of the system of man-
dates; it founded the Royal Institute of International Affairs in 1919
and still controls it; it was one of the chief influences on British policy
toward Ireland, Palestine, and India in the period 1917-1945; it was a
very important influence on the policy of appeasement of Germany
during the years 1920-1940; and it controlled and still controls, to a
very considerable extent, the sources and the writing of the history of
British Imperial and foreign policy since the Boer War.

It would be expected that a Group which could number among its
achievements such accomplishments as these would be a familiar sub-
ject for discussion among students of history and public affairs. In this
case, the expectation is not realized, partly because of the deliberate
policy of secrecy which this Group has adopted, partly because the
Group itself is not closely integrated but rather appears as a series of
overlapping circles or rings partly concealed by being hidden behind
formally organized groups of no obvious political significance.

This Group, held together, as it is, by the tenuous links of friendship,
personal association, and common ideals is so indefinite in its outlines
(especially in recent years) that it is not always possible to say who is a
member and who is not. Indeed, there is no sharp line of demarkation
between those who are members and those who are not, since
"membership" is possessed in varying degrees, and the degree changes
at different times. Sir Alfred Zimmern, for example, while always close
to the Group, was in its inner circle only for a brief period in
1910-1922, thereafter slowly drifting away into the outer orbits of the
Group. Lord Halifax, on the other hand, while close to it from 1903,
did not really become a member until after 1920. Viscount Astor, also
close to the Group from its first beginnings (and much closer than
Halifax), moved rapidly to the center of the Group after 1916, and

6 / The Anglo-American Establishment

especially after 1922, and in later years became increasingly a decisive
voice in the Group.

Although the membership of the Milner Group has slowly shifted
with the passing years, the Group still reflects the characteristics of its
chief leader and, through him, the ideological orientation of Balliol in
the 1870s. Although the Group did not actually come into existence un-
til 1891, its history covers a much longer period, since its origins go
back to about 1873. This history can be divided into four periods, of
which the first, from 1873 to 1891, could be called the preparatory
period and centers about the figures of W. T. Stead and Alfred Milner.
The second period, from 1891 to 1901, could be called the Rhodes
period, although Stead was the chief figure for most of it. The third
period, from 1901 to 1922, could be called the New College period and
centers about Alfred Milner. The fourth period, from about 1922 to the
present, could be called the All Souls period and centers about Lord
Lothian, Lord Brand, and Lionel Curtis. During these four periods,
the Group grew steadily in power and influence, until about 1939. It
was badly split on the policy of appeasement after 16 March 1939, and
received a rude jolt from the General Election of 1945. Until 1939,
however, the expansion in power of the Group was fairly consistent.
This growth was based on the possession by its members of ability,
social connections, and wealth. It is not possible to distinguish the rela-
tionship of these three qualities — a not uncommon situation in
England.

Milner was able to dominate this Group because he became the focus
or rather the intersection point of three influences. These we shall call
"the Toynbee group," "the Cecil Bloc," and the "Rhodes secret soci-
ety." The Toynbee group was a group of political intellectuals formed
at Balliol about 1873 and dominated by Arnold Toynbee and Milner
himself. It was really the group of Milner 's personal friends. The Cecil
Bloc was a nexus of political and social power formed by Lord
Salisbury and extending from the great sphere of politics into the fields
of education and publicity. In the field of education, its influence was
chiefly visible at Eton and Harrow and at All Souls College, Oxford. In
the field of publicity, its influence was chiefly visible in The Quarterly
Review and The Times. The "Rhodes secret society" was a group of im-
perial federalists, formed in the period after 1889 and using the
economic resources of South Africa to extend and perpetuate the
British Empire.

It is doubtful if Milner could have formed his Group without
assistance from all three of these sources. The Toynbee group gave him
the ideology and the personal loyalties which he needed; the Cecil Bloc
gave him the political influence without which his ideas could easily
have died in the seed; and the Rhodes secret society gave him the

Introduction / 7

economic resources which made it possible for him to create his own
group independent of the Cecil Bloc. By 1902, when the leadership of
the Cecil Bloc had fallen from the masterful grasp of Lord Salisbury
into the rather indifferent hands of Arthur Balfour, and Rhodes had
died, leaving Milner as the chief controller of his vast estate, the Milner
Group was already established and had a most hopeful future. The
long period of Liberal government which began in 1906 cast a tem-
porary cloud over that future, but by 1916 the Milner Group had made
its entrance into the citadel of political power and for the next twenty-
three years steadily extended its influence until, by 1938, it was the
most potent political force in Britain.

The original members of the Milner Group came from well-to-do,
upper-class, frequently titled families. At Oxford they demonstrated
intellectual ability and laid the basis for the Group. In later years they
added to their titles and financial resources, obtaining these partly by
inheritance and partly by ability to tap new sources of titles and
money. At first their family fortunes may have been adequate to their
ambitions, but in time these were supplemented by access to the funds
in the foundation of All Souls, the Rhodes Trust and the Beit Trust, the
fortune of Sir Abe Bailey, the Astor fortune, certain powerful British
banks (of which the chief was Lazard Brothers and Company), and, in
recent years, the Nuffield money.

Although the outlines of the Milner Group existed long before 1891,
the Group did not take full form until after that date. Earlier, Milner
and Stead had become part of a group of neo-imperialists who justified
the British Empire's existence on moral rather than on economic or
political grounds and who sought to make this justification a reality by
advocating self-government and federation within the Empire. This
group formed at Oxford in the early 1870s and was extended in the
early 1880s. At Balliol it included Milner, Arnold Toynbee, Thomas
Raleigh, Michael Glazebrook, Philip Lyttelton Gell, and George R.
Parkin. Toynbee was Milner 's closest friend. After his early death in
1883, Milner was active in establishing Toynbee Hall, a settlement
house in London, in his memory. Milner was chairman of the
governing board of this establishment from 1911 to his death in 1925.
In 1931 plaques to both Toynbee and Milner were unveiled there by
members of the Milner Group. In 1894 Milner delivered a eulogy of his
dead friend at Toynbee Hall, and published it the next year as Arnold
Toynbee: A Retniniscence . He also wrote the sketch of Toynbee in the
Dictionary of National Biography. The connection is important
because it undoubtedly gave Toynbee's nephew, Arnold J. Toynbee,
his entree into government service in 1915 and into the Royal Institute
of International Affairs after the war.

George R. Parkin (later Sir George, 1846-1922) was a Canadian who

8 / The Anglo-American Establishment

spent only one year in England before 1889. But during that year
(1873-1874) he was a member of Milner's circle at Balliol and became
known as a fanatical supporter of imperial federation. As a result of
this, he became a charter member of the Canadian branch of the Im-
perial Federation League in 1885 and was sent, four years later, to
New Zealand and Australia by the League to try to build up imperial
sentiment. On his return, he toured around England, giving speeches
to the same purpose. This brought him into close contact with the Cecil
Bloc, especially George E. Buckle of The Times, G. W. Prothero, J. R.
Seeley, Lord Rosebery, Sir Thomas (later Lord) Brassey, and Milner.
For Buckle, and in support of the Canadian Pacific Railway, he made a
survey of the resources and problems of Canada in 1892. This was
published by Macmillan under the title The Great Dominion the
following year. On a subsidy from Brassey and Rosebery he wrote and
published his best-known book, Imperial Federation, in 1892. This
kind of work as a propagandist for the Cecil Bloc did not provide a very
adequate living, so on 24 April 1893 Milner offered to form a group of
imperialists who would finance this work of Parkin's on a more stable
basis. Accordingly, Parkin, Milner, and Brassey, on 1 June 1893,
signed a contract by which Parkin was to be paid £450 a year for three
years. During this period he was to propagandize as he saw fit for im-
perial solidarity. As a result of this agreement, Parkin began a steady
correspondence with Milner, which continued for the rest of his life.

When the Imperial Federation League dissolved in 1894, Parkin
became one of a group of propagandists known as the "Seeley lecturers"
after Professor J. R. Seeley of Cambridge University, a famous im-
perialist. Parkin still found his income insufficient, however, although
it was being supplemented from various sources, chiefly The Times. In
1894 he went to the Colonial Conference at Ottawa as special cor-
respondent of The Times. The following year, when he was offered the
position of Principal of Upper Canada College, Toronto, he consulted
with Buckle and Moberly Bell, the editors of The Times, hoping to get
a full-time position on The Times. There was none vacant, so he ac-
cepted the academic post in Toronto, combining with it the position of
Canadian correspondent of The Times. This relationship with The
Times continued even after he became organizing secretary of the
Rhodes Trust in 1902. In 1908, for example, he was The Times's cor-
respondent at the Quebec tercentenary celebration. Later, in behalf of
The Times and with the permission of Marconi, he sent the first press
dispatch ever transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean by radio.

In 1902, Parkin became the first secretary of the Rhodes Trust, and
he assisted Milner in the next twenty years in setting up the methods by
which the Rhodes Scholars would be chosen. To this day, more than a
quarter-century after his death, his influence is still potent in the

Introduction / 9

Milner Group in Canada. His son-in-law, Vincent Massey, and his
namesake, George Parkin de T. Glazebrook, are the leaders of the
Milner Group in the Dominion. 2

Another member of this Balliol group of 1875 was Thomas Raleigh
(later Sir Thomas, 1850-1922), close friend of Parkin and Milner, Fel-
low of All Souls (1876-1922), later registrar of the Privy Council (1896-
1899), legal member of the Council of the Viceroy of India
(1899-1904), and member of the Council of India in London (1909-
1913). Raleigh's friendship with Milner was not based only on associa-
tion at Balliol, for he had lived in Milner's house in Tubingen, Ger-
many, when they were both studying there before 1868.

Another student, who stayed only briefly at Balliol but remained as
Milner's intimate friend for the rest of his life, was Philip Lyttelton Gell
(1852-1926). Gell was a close friend of Milner's mother's family and
had been with Milner at King's College, London, before they both
came up to Balliol. In fact, it is extremely likely that it was because of
Gell, two years his senior, that Milner transferred to Balliol from Lon-
don. Gell was made first chairman of Toynbee Hall by Milner when it
was opened in 1884, and held that post for twelve years. He was still
chairman of it when Milner delivered his eulogy of Toynbee there in
1894. In 1899 Milner made Gell a director of the British South Africa
Company, a position he held for twenty-six years (three of them as
president) .

Another intimate friend, with whom Milner spent most of his college
vacations, was Michael Glazebrook (1853-1926). Glazebrook was the
heir of Toynbee in the religious field, as Milner was in the political
field. He became Headmaster of Clifton College (1891-1905) and
Canon of Ely (1905-1926) and frequently got into conflict with his ec-
clesiastical superiors because of his liberal views. This occurred in its
most acute form after his publication of The Faith of a Modern
Churchman in 1918. His younger brother, Arthur James Glazebrook,
was the founder and chief leader of the Canadian branch of the Milner
Group until succeeded by Massey about 1935.

While Milner was at Balliol, Cecil Rhodes was at Oriel, George E.
Buckle was at New College, and H. E. Egerton was at Corpus. It is not
clear if Milner knew these young men at the time, but all three played
roles in the Milner Group later. Among his contemporaries at Balliol
itself, we should list nine names, six of whom were later Fellows of All
Souls: H. H. Asquith, St. John Brodrick, Charles Firth, W. P. Ker,
Charles Lucas, Robert Mowbray, Rowland E. Prothero, A. L. Smith,
and Charles A. Whitmore. Six of these later received titles from a
grateful government, and all of them enter into any history of the
Milner Group.

In Milner's own little circle at Balliol, the dominant position was

10 / The Anglo-American Establishment

held by Toynbee. In spite of his early death in 1883, Toynbee's ideas
and outlook continue to influence the Milner Group to the present day.
As Milner said in 1894, "There are many men now active in public life,
and some whose best work is probably yet to come, who are simply
working out ideas inspired by him." As to Toynbee's influence on
Milner himself, the latter, speaking of his first meeting with Toynbee
in 1873, said twenty-one years later, "I feel at once under his spell and
have always remained under it." No one who is ignorant of the ex-
istence of the Milner Group can possibly see the truth of these quota-
tions, and, as a result, the thousands of persons who have read these
statements in the introduction to Toynbee's famous Lectures on the In-
dustrial Revolution have been vaguely puzzled by Milner 's insistence
on the importance of a man who died at such an early age and so long
ago. Most readers have merely dismissed the statements as sentimen-
tality inspired by personal attachment, although it should be clear that
Alfred Milner was about the last person in the world to display sen-
timentality or even sentiment.

Among the ideas of Toynbee which influenced the Milner Group we
should mention three: (a) a conviction that the history of the British
Empire represents the unfolding of a great moral idea — the idea of
freedom — and that the unity of the Empire could best be preserved by
the cement of this idea; (b) a conviction that the first call on the atten-
tion of any man should be a sense of duty and obligation to serve the
state; and (c) a feeling of the necessity to do social service work
(especially educational work) among the working classes of English
society. 3 These ideas were accepted by most of the men whose names
we have already mentioned and became dominant principles of the
Milner Group later. Toynbee can also be regarded as the founder of the
method used by the Group later, especially in the Round Table Groups
and in the Royal Institute of International Affairs. As described by
Benjamin Jowett, Master of Balliol, in his preface to the 1884 edition of
Toynbee's Lectures on the Industrial Revolution, this method was as
follows: "He would gather his friends around him; they would form an
organization; they would work on quietly for a time, some at Oxford,
some in London; they would prepare themselves in different parts of
the subject until they were ready to strike in public." In a prefatory
note to this same edition, Toynbee's widow wrote: "The whole has
been revised by the friend who shared my husband's entire intellectual
life, Mr. Alfred Milner, without whose help the volume would have
been far more imperfect than it is, but whose friendship was too close
and tender to allow now of a word of thanks." After Milner published
his Reminiscence of Arnold Toynbee, it was reprinted in subsequent
editions of the Industrial Revolution as a memoir, replacing Jowett's.

After leaving Oxford in 1877, Milner studied law for several years

Introduction / 11

but continued to remain in close contact with his friends, through a
club organized by Toynbee. This group, which met at the Temple in
London as well as at Oxford, worked closely with the famous social
reformer and curate of St. Jude's, Whitechapel, Samuel A. Barnett.
The group lectured to working-class audiences in Whitechapel, Milner
giving a course of speeches on "The State and the Duties of Rulers" in
1880 and another on "Socialism" in 1882. The latter series was pub-
lished in the National Review in 1931 by Lady Milner.

In this group of Toynbee's was Albert Grey (later Earl Grey,
1851-1917), who became an ardent advocate of imperial federation.
Later a loyal supporter of Milner's, as we shall see, he remained a
member of the Milner Group until his death. Another member of the
group, Ernest Iwan-Muller, had been at King's College, London, with
Milner and Gell, and at New College while Milner was at Balliol. A
close friend of Milner's, he became a journalist, was with Milner in
South Africa during the Boer War, and wrote a valuable work on this
experience called Lord Milner in South Africa (1903). Milner
reciprocated by writing his sketch in the Dictionary of National
Biography when he died in 1910.

At the end of 1881 Milner determined to abandon the law and devote
himself to work of more social benefit. On 16 December he wrote in his
diary: "One cannot have everything. I am a poor man and must choose
between public usefulness and private happiness. I choose the former,
or rather, I choose to strive for it." 4

The opportunity to carry out this purpose came to him through his
social work with Barnett, for it was by this connection that he met
George J. (later Lord) Goschen, Member of Parliament and director of
the Bank of England, who in the space of three years (1880-1883)
refused the posts of Viceroy of India, Secretary of State for War, and
Speaker of the House of Commons. Goschen became, as we shall see,
one of the instruments by which Milner obtained political influence.
For one year (1884-1885) Milner served as Goschen's private secretary,
leaving the post only because he stood for Parliament himself in 1885.

It was probably as a result of Goschen's influence that Milner
entered journalism, beginning to write for the Pall Mall Gazette in
1881. On this paper he established a number of personal relationships
of later significance. At the time, the editor was John Morley, with
William T. Stead as assistant. Stead was assistant editor in 1880-1883,
and editor in 1883-1890. In the last year, he founded The Review of
Reviews. An ardent imperialist, at the same time that he was a violent
reformer in domestic matters, he was "one of the strongest champions
in England of Cecil Rhodes." He introduced Albert Grey to Rhodes
and, as a result, Grey became one of the original directors of the British
South Africa Company when it was established by royal charter in

12 / The Anglo-American Establishment

1889. Grey became administrator of Rhodesia when Dr. Jameson was
forced to resign from that post in 1896 as an aftermath of his famous
raid into the Transvaal. He was Governor-General of Canada in
1904-1911 and unveiled the Rhodes Memorial in South Africa in 1912.
A Liberal member of the House of Commons from 1880 to 1886, he was
defeated as a Unionist in the latter year. In 1894 he entered the House
of Lords as the fourth Earl Grey, having inherited the title and 17,600
acres from an uncle. Throughout this period he was close to Milner and
later was very useful in providing practical experience for various
members of the Milner Group. His son, the future fifth Earl Grey,
married the daughter of the second Earl of Selborne, a member of the
Milner Group.

During the period in which Milner was working with the Pall Mall
Gazette he became associated with three persons of some importance
later. One of these was Edward T. Cook (later Sir Edward,
1857-1919), who became a member of the Toynbee-Milner circle in
1879 while still an undergraduate at New College. Milner had become
a Fellow of New College in 1878 and held the appointment until he
was elected Chancellor of the University in 1925. With Edward Cook
he began a practice which he was to repeat many times in his life later.
That is, as Fellow of New College, he became familiar with under-
graduates whom he later placed in positions of opportunity and respon-
sibility to test their abilities. Cook was made secretary of the London
Society for the Extension of University Teaching (1882) and invited to
contribute to the Pall Mall Gazette. He succeeded Milner as assistant
editor to Stead in 1885 and succeeded Stead as editor in 1890. He
resigned as editor in 1892, when Waldorf Astor bought the Gazette,
and founded the new Westminister Gazette, of which he was editor for
three years (1893-1896). Subsequently editor of the Daily News for five
years (1896-1901), he lost this post because of the proprietors' objec-
tions to his unqualified support of Rhodes, Milner, and the Boer War.
During the rest of his life (1901-1919) he was leader-writer for the
Daily Chronicle, edited Ruskin's works in thirty-eight volumes, wrote
the standard biography of Ruskin and a life of John Delane, the great
editor of The Times.

Also associated with Milner in this period was Edmund Garrett
(1865-1907), who was Stead's and Cook's assistant on the Pall Mall
Gazette for several years (1887-1892) and went with Cook to the
Westminister Gazette (1893-1895). In 1889 he was sent by Stead to
South Africa for his health and became a great friend of Cecil Rhodes.
He wrote a series of articles for the Gazette, which were published in
book form in 1891 as In Afrikanderland and the Land of Ophir. He
returned to South Africa in 1895 as editor of the Cape Times, the most
important English-language paper in South Africa. Both as editor

Introduction / 13

(1895-1900) and later as a member of the Cape Parliament
(1898-1902), he strongly supported Rhodes and Milner and warmly ad-
vocated a union of all South Africa. His health broke down completely
in 1900, but he wrote a character analysis of Rhodes for the Contem-
porary Review (June 1902) and a chapter called "Rhodes and Milner"
for The Empire and the Century (1905). Edward Cook wrote a full
biography of Garrett in 1909, while Milner wrote Garrett's sketch in
the Dictionary oj National Biography, pointing out "as his chief title to
remembrance" his advocacy "of a United South Africa absolutely
autonomous in its own affairs but remaining part of the British Em-
pire."

During the period in which he was assistant editor of the Gazette,
Milner had as roommate Henry Birchenough (later Sir Henry,
1853-1937). Birchenough went into the silk-manufacturing business,
but his chief opportunities for fame came from his contacts with
Milner. In 1903 he was made special British Trade Commissioner to
South Africa, in 1906 a member of the Royal Commission on Shipping
Rings (a controversial South African subject), in 1905 a director of the
British South Africa Company (president in 1925), and in 1920 a
trustee of the Beit Fund. During the First World War, he was a
member of various governmental committees concerned with subjects
in which Milner was especially interested. He was chairman of the
Board of Trade's Committee on Textiles after the war; chairman of the
Royal Commission of Paper; chairman of the Committee on Cotton-
Growing in the Empire; and chairman of the Advisory Council to the
Ministry of Reconstruction.

In 1885, as a result of his contact with such famous Liberals as
Goschen, Morley, and Stead, and at the direct invitation of Michael
Glazebrook, Milner stood for Parliament but was defeated. In the
following year he supported the Unionists in the critical election on
Home Rule for Ireland and acted as head of the "Literature Commit-
tee" of the new party. Goschen made him his private secretary when he
became Chancellor of the Exchequer in Lord Salisbury's government in
1887. The two men were similar in many ways: both had been ed-
ucated in Germany, and both had mathematical minds. It was
Goschen's influence which gave Milner the opportunity to form the
Milner Group, because it was Goschen who introduced him to the
Cecil Bloc. While Milner was Goschen's private secretary, his
parliamentary private secretary was Sir Robert Mowbray, an older
contemporary of Milner 's at Balliol and a Fellow of All Souls for forty-
six years (1873-1919).

As a result of Goschen's influence, Milner was appointed successively
Under Secretary of Finance in Egypt (1887-1892), chairman of the
Board of Inland Revenue (1892-1897), and High Commissioner to

14 / The Anglo-American Establishment

South Africa (1897-1905). With the last position he combined several
other posts, notably Governor of the Cape of Good Hope (1897-1901)
and Governor of the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony
(1901-1905). But Goschen's influence on Milner was greater than this,
both in specific matters and in general. Specifically, as Chancellor of
Oxford University in succession to Lord Salisbury (1903-1907) and as
an intimate friend of the Warden of All Souls, Sir William Anson,
Goschen became one of the instruments by which the Milner Group
merged with All Souls. But more important than this, Goschen in-
troduced Milner, in the period 1886-1905, into that extraordinary
circle which rotated about the Cecil family.

The Cecil Bloc

The Milner Group could never have been built up by Milner's own ef-
forts. He had no political power or even influence. All that he had was
ability and ideas. The same thing is true about many of the other
members of the Milner Group, at least at the time that they joined the
Group. The power that was utilized by Milner and his Group was
really the power of the Cecil family and its allied families such as the
Lyttelton (Viscounts Cobham), Wyndham (Barons Leconfield),
Grosvenor (Dukes of Westminster), Balfour, Wemyss, Palmer (Earls of
Selborne and Viscounts Wolmer), Cavendish (Dukes of Devonshire
and Marquesses of Hartington), and Gathorne-Hardy (Earls of Cran-
brook). The Milner Group was originally a major fief within the great
nexus of power, influence, and privilege controlled by the Cecil family.
It is not possible to describe here the ramifications of the Cecil in-
fluence. It has been all-pervasive in British life since 1886. This Cecil
Bloc was built up by Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne- Cecil, Viscount
Cranborne and third Marquess of Salisbury (1830-1903). The methods
used by this man were merely copied by the Milner Group. These
methods can be summed up under three headings: (a) a triple-front
penetration in politics, education, and journalism; (b) the recruitment
of men of ability (chiefly from All Souls) and the linking of these men to
the Cecil Bloc by matrimonal alliances and by gratitude for titles and
positions of power; and (c) the influencing of public policy by placing
members of the Cecil Bloc in positions of power shielded as much as
possible from public attention.

The triple-front penetration can be seen in Lord Salisbury's own life.
He was not only Prime Minister for a longer period than anyone else in
recent history (fourteen years between 1885 and 1902) but also a Fel-
low of All Souls (from 1853) and Chancellor of Oxford University
(1869-1903), and had a paramount influence on The Quarterly Review
for many years. He practiced a shameless nepotism, concealed to some
extent by the shifting of names because of acquisition of titles and

15

16 / The Anglo-American Establishment

female marital connections, and redeemed by the fact that ability as
well as family connection was required from appointees.

Lord Salisbury's practice of nepotism was aided by the fact that he
had two brothers and two sisters and had five sons and three daughters
of his own. One of his sisters was the mother of Arthur J. Balfour and
Gerald W. Balfour. Of his own daughters, one married the Second
Earl of Selborne and had a son, Lord Wolmer, and a daughter, Lady
Mabel Laura Palmer. The daughter married the son of Earl Grey,
while the son married the daughter of Viscount Ridley. The son,
known as Lord Wolmer until 1942 and Lord Selborne since that date,
was an M.P. for thirty years (1910-1940), a figure in various Con-
servative governments since 1916, and Minister of Economic Warfare
in 1942-1945.

Of Lord Salisbury's five sons, the oldest (now fourth Marquess of
Salisbury), was in almost every Conservative government from 1900 to
1929. He had four children, of whom two married into the Cavendish
family. Of these, a daughter, Lady Mary Cecil, married in 1917 the
Marquess of Hartington, later tenth Duke of Devonshire; the older son,
Viscount Cranborne, married Lady Elizabeth Cavendish, niece of the
ninth Duke of Devonshire. The younger son, Lord David Cecil, a well-
known writer of biographical works, was for years a Fellow of
Wadham and for the last decade has been a Fellow of New College.
The other daughter, Lady Beatrice Cecil, married W. G. A. Ormsby-
Gore (now Lord Harlech), who became a member of the Milner
Group. It should perhaps be mentioned that Viscount Cranborne was
in the House of Commons from 1929 to 1941 and has been in the House
of Lords since. He was Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs in
1935-1938, resigned in protest at the Munich agreement, but returned
to office in 1940 as Paymaster General (1940), Secretary of State for
Dominion Affairs (1940-1942), and Colonial Secretary (1942). He was
later Lord Privy Seal (1942-1943), Secretary for Dominion Affairs
again (1943-1945), and Leader of the Conservative Party in the House
of Lords (1942-1945).

Lord Salisbury's second son, Lord William Cecil (1863- ), was
Rural Dean of Hertford (1904-1916) and Bishop of Exeter (1916-1936),
as well as chaplain to King Edward VII.

Lord Salisbury's third son, Lord Robert Cecil (Viscount Cecil of
Chelwood since 1923), was an M.P. from 1906 to 1923 as well as
Parliamentary Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs (1915-1916), Assis-
tant Secretary in the same department (1918), Minister of Blockade
(1916-1918), Lord Privy Seal (1923-1924), and Chancellor of the
Duchy of Lancaster (1924-1927). He was one of the original drafters of
the Covenant of the League of Nations and was the Englishman most
closely associated in the public mind with the work of the League. For

The Cecil Bloc / 17

this work he received the Nobel Prize in 1937.

Lord Salisbury's fourth son, Lord Edward Cecil (1867-1918), was
the one most closely associated with Milner, and, in 1921, his widow
married Milner. While Lord Edward was besieged with Rhodes in
Mafeking in 1900, Lady Cecil lived in close contact with Milner and his
Kindergarten. After the war, Lord Edward was Agent-General of the
Sudan (1903-1905), Under Secretary of Finance in Egypt (1905-1912),
and financial adviser to the Egyptian government (1912-1918). He was
in complete control of the Egyptian government during the interval
between Kitchener's departure and the arrival of Sir Henry McMahon
as High Commissioner, and was the real power in McMahon's ad-
ministration (1914-1916). In 1894 he had married Violet Maxse,
daughter of Admiral Frederick Maxse and sister of General Sir Ivor
Maxse. Sir Ivor, a good friend of Milner's, was the husband of Mary
Caroline Wyndham, daughter of Baron Leconfield and niece of Lord
Rosebery.

Lord Edward Cecil had a son and a daughter. The daughter, Helen
Mary Cecil, married Captain Alexander Hardinge in the same year
(1921) in which she became Milner's stepdaughter. Her husband was
the heir of Baron Hardinge of Penshurst and a cousin of Sir Arthur
Hardinge. Both Hardinges were proteges of Lord Salisbury, as we shall
see.

The fifth son of Lord Salisbury was Lord Hugh Cecil (Baron
Quickswood since 1941). He was a Member of Parliament for Green-
wich (1895-1906) and for Oxford University (1910-1937). He is now a
Fellow of New College, after having been a Fellow of Hertford for over
fifty years.

The degree to which Lord Salisbury practiced nepotism can be seen
by a look at his third government (1895-1902) or its successor, Balfour's
first government (1902-1905). The Balfour government was nothing
but a continuation of Salisbury's government, since, as we have seen,
Balfour was Salisbury's nephew and chief assistant and was made pre-
mier in 1902 by his uncle. Salisbury was Prime Minister and Foreign
Secretary; Balfour was First Lord of the Treasury and Party Leader in
Commons (1895-1902); his brother, Gerald Balfour, was Chief
Secretary for Ireland (1895-1900) and President of the Board of Trade
(1900-1905); their cousin-in-law Lord Selborne was Under Secretary
for the Colonies (1895-1900) and First Lord of the Admiralty
(1905-1910). Arthur Balfour's most intimate friend, and the man who
would have been his brother-in-law except for his sister's premature
death in 1875 (an event which kept Balfour a bachelor for the rest of his
life), Alfred Lyttelton, was chairman of a mission to the Transvaal in
1900 and Colonial Secretary (1903-1906). His older brother, Neville,
was Assistant Military Secretary in the War Office (1897-1898),

18 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Commander-in-Chief in South Africa under Milner (1902-1904), and
Chief of the General Staff (1904-1908). Another intimate friend of
Balfour's, George Wyndham, was Parliamentary Under Secretary for
War (1898-1900) and Chief Secretary for Ireland (1900-1905). St. John
Brodrick (later Lord Midleton), a classmate of Milner's, brother-in-law
of P. L. Gell and son-in-law of the Earl of Wemyss, was Under
Secretary for War (1895-1898), Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs
(1898-1900), Secretary of State for War (1900-1903), and Secretary of
State for India (1903-1905). James Cecil, Viscount Cranborne, Lord
Salisbury's heir, was Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs (1900-1903)
and Lord Privy Seal (1903-1905). Evelyn Cecil (Sir Evelyn since 1922),
nephew of Lord Salisbury, was private secretary to his uncle
(1895-1902). Walter Long (later Lord Long), a creation of Salisbury's,
was President of the Board of Agriculture (1895-1900), President of the
Local Government Board (1900-1905), and Chief Secretary for Ireland
(1905-1906). George N. Curzon, (later Lord Curzon) a Fellow of All
Souls, ex-secretary and protege of Lord Salisbury, was Under Secretary
for Foreign Affairs (1895-1898) and Viceroy of India (1899-1905).

In addition to these personal appointees of Lord Salisbury, this
government had the leaders of the Unionist Party, which had split off
from the Liberal Party in the fight over Home Rule in 1886. These in-
cluded the eighth Duke of Devonshire and his nephew, the Marquess of
Hartington (the Cavendish family), the latter's father-in-law (Lord
Lansdowne), Goschen, and Joseph Chamberlain. The Duke of Devon-
shire was Lord President of the Council (1895-1903); his nephew and
heir was Treasurer of H.M. Household (1900-1903) and Financial
Secretary to the Treasury (1903-1905). The latter's father-in-law, Lord
Lansdowne, was Secretary for War (1895-1900) and Foreign Secretary
(1900-1905); Goschen was First Lord of the Admiralty (1895-1900) and
rewarded with a viscounty (1900). Joseph Chamberlain was Secretary
for the Colonies (1895-1903).

Most of these persons were related by numerous family and marital
connections which have not yet been mentioned. We should point out
some of these connections, since they form the background of the
Milner Group.

George W. Lyttelton, fourth Baron Lyttelton, married a sister of
Mrs. William E. Gladstone and had eight sons. Of these, Neville and
Alfred have been mentioned; Spencer was secretary to his uncle, W. E.
Gladstone, for three extended periods between 1871 and 1894, and was
an intimate friend of Arthur Balfour (world tour together in 1875); Ed-
ward was Headmaster of Haileybury (1890-1905) and of Eton
(1905-1916); Arthur was chaplain to the Queen (1896-1898) and
Bishop of Southampton (1898-1903). Charles, the oldest son, fifth
Baron Lyttelton and eighth Viscount Cobham (1842-1922), married

The Cecil Bloc / 19

Mary Cavendish and had four sons and three daughters. The oldest
son, now ninth Viscount Cobham, was private secretary to Lord
Selborne in South Africa (1905-1908) and Parliamentary Under
Secretary of War (1939-1940). His brother George was assistant master
at Eton. His sister Frances married the nephew of Lady Chelmsford.

The youngest son of the fourth Baron Lyttelton, Alfred, whom we
have already mentioned, married twice. His first wife was Laura
Tennant, whose sister Margot married Herbert Asquith and whose
brother Baron Glenconner married Pamela Wyndham. Pamela mar-
ried, for a second husband, Viscount Grey of Fallodon. For his second
wife, Alfred Lyttelton married Edith Balfour. She survived him by
many years and was later deputy director of the women's branch of the
Ministry of Agriculture (1917-1919), a substitute delegate to the
Assembly of the League of Nations for five sessions (1923-1931), and a
member of the council of the Royal Institute of International Affairs.
Her son, Captain Oliver Lyttelton, has been an M.P. since 1940, was
managing director of the British Metals Corporation, Controller of
Non-ferrous Metals (1939-1940), President of the Board of Trade
(1940-1941, 1945), a member of the War Cabinet (1941-1945), and
Minister of Production (1942-1945).

Almost as ramified as the Lyttelton clan were the Wyndhams,
descendants of the first Baron Leconfield. The Baron had three sons.
Of these, the oldest married Constance Primrose, sister of Lord
Rosebery, daughter of Lord Dalmeny and his wife, Dorothy Grosvenor
(later Lady Brassey), and granddaughter of Lord Henry Grosvenor and
his wife, Dora Wemyss. They had four children. Of these, one, Hugh
A. Wyndham, married Maud Lyttelton and was a member of Milner's
Kindergarten. His sister Mary married General Sir Ivor Maxse and was
thus the sister-in-law of Lady Edward Cecil (later Lady Milner).
Another son of Baron Leconfield, Percy Scawen Wyndham, was the
father of Pamela (Lady Glenconner and later Lady Grey), of George
Wyndham (already mentioned), who married Countess Grosvenor,
and of Mary Wyndham, who married the eleventh Earl of Wemyss. It
should perhaps be mentioned that Countess Grosvenor's daughter
Lettice Grosvenor married the seventh Earl of Beauchamp, brother-in-
law of Samuel Hoare. Countess Grosvenor (Mrs. George Wyndham)
had two nephews who must be mentioned. One, Lawrence John
Lumley Dundas (Earl of Ronaldshay and Marquess of Zetland), was
sent as military aide to Curzon, Viceroy of India, in 1900. He was an
M.P. (1907-1916), a member of the Royal Commission on Public Ser-
vices in India (1912-1914), Governor of Bengal (1917-1922), a member
of the Indian Round Table Conference of 1930-1931 and of the
Parliamentary Joint Select Committee on India in 1933. He was
Secretary of State for India (1935-1940) and for Burma (1937-1940), as

20 / The Anglo-American Establishment

well as the official biographer of Lord Curzon and Lord Cromer.

The other nephew of Countess Grosvenor, Laurence Roger Lumley
(Earl of Scarbrough since 1945), a cousin of the Marquess of Zetland,
was an M.P. as soon as he graduated from Magdalen (1922-1929,
1931-1937), and later Governor of Bombay (1937-1943) and
Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for India and Burma (1945).

Countess Grosvenor's sister-in-law Mary Wyndham (who married
the Earl of Wemyss) had three children. The younger son, Guy
Charteris, married a Tennant of the same family as the first Mrs.
Alfred Lyttelton, the second Mrs. Herbert Asquith, and Baron
Glenconner. His sister, Cynthia Charteris, married Herbert Asquith's
son Herbert. In an earlier generation, Francis Charteris, tenth Earl of
Wemyss, married Anne Anson, while his sister Lady Hilda Charteris
married St. John Brodrick, eighth Viscount Midleton of first Earl
Midleton. Lord Midleton's sister Edith married Philip Lyttelton Gell.

This complicated interrelationship of family connections by no
means exhausts the links between the families that made up the Cecil
Bloc as it existed in the period 1886-1900, when Milner was brought
into it by Goschen. Nor would any picture of this Bloc be complete
without some mention of the persons without family connections who
were brought into the Bloc by Lord Salisbury. Most of these persons
were recruited from All Souls and, like Arthur Balfour, Lord Robert
Cecil, Baron Quickswood, Sir Evelyn Cecil, and others, frequently
served an apprenticeship in a secretarial capacity to Lord Salisbury.
Many of these persons later married into the Cecil Bloc. In recruiting
his proteges from All Souls, Salisbury created a precedent that was
followed later by the Milner Group, although the latter went much
further than the former in the degree of its influence on All Souls.

All Souls is the most peculiar of Oxford Colleges. It has no un-
dergraduates, and its postgraduate members are not generally in pur-
suit of a higher degree. Essentially, it consists of a substantial endow-
ment originally set up in 1437 by Henry Chichele, sometime Fellow of
New College and later Archbishop of Canterbury, from revenues of
suppressed priories. From this foundation incomes were established
originally for a warden, forty fellows, and two chaplains. This has
been modified at various times, until at present twenty-one fellowships
worth £300 a year for seven years are filled from candidates who have
passed a qualifying examination. This group usually join within a year
or two of receiving the bachelor's degree. In addition, there are eleven
fellowships without emolument, to be held by the incumbents of
various professorial chairs at Oxford. These include the Chichele
Chairs of International Law, of Modern History, of Economic History,
of Social and Political Theory, and of the History of War; the Drum-
mond Chair of Political Economy; the Gladstone Chair of Govern-

The Cecil Bloc / 21

ment; the Regius Chair of Civil Law; the Vinerian Chair of English
Law; the Marshal Foch Professorship of French Literature; and the
Chair of Social Anthropology. There are ten Distinguished Persons
fellowships without emolument, to be held for seven years by persons
who have attained fame in law, humanities, science, or public affairs.
These are usually held by past Fellows. There are a varying number of
research fellowships and teaching fellowships, good for five to seven
years, with annual emoluments of £300 to £600. There are also twelve
seven-year fellowships with annual emoluments of £50 for past
Fellows. And lastly, there are six fellowships to be held by incumbents
of certain college or university offices.

The total number of Fellows at any one time is generally no more
than fifty and frequently considerably fewer. Until 1910 there were
usually fewer than thirty-five, but the number has slowly increased in
the twentieth century, until by 1947 there were fifty-one. In the whole
period of the twentieth century from 1900 to 1947, there was a total of
149 Fellows. This number, although small, was illustrious and influen-
tial. It includes such names as Lord Acton, Leopold Amery, Sir
William Anson, Sir Harold Butler, G. N. Clark, G. D. H. Cole, H. W.
C. Davis, A. V. Dicey, Geoffrey Faber, Keith Feiling, Lord
Chelmsford, Sir Maurice Gwyer, Lord Halifax, W. K. Hancock, Sir
Arthur Hardinge, Sir William Holdsworth, T. E. Lawrence, C. A.
Macartney, Friedrich Max Muller, Viscount Morley of Blackburn, Sir
Charles Oman, A. F. Pollard, Sir Charles Grant Robertson, Sir James
Arthur Salter, Viscount Simon, Sir Donald Somervell, Sir Arthur Ram-
say Steel-Maitland, Sir Ernest Swinton, K. C. Wheare, E. L. Wood-
ward, Francis de Zulueta, etc. In addition, there were to be numbered
among those who were fellows before 1900 such illustrious persons as
Lord Curzon, Lord Ernie, Sir Robert Herbert, Sir Edmund Monson,
Lord Phillimore, Viscount Ridley, and Lord Salisbury. Most of these
persons were elected to fellowships in All Souls at the age of twenty-
two or twenty-three years, at a time when their great exploits were yet
in the future. There is some question whether this ability of the Fellows
of All Souls to elect as their younger colleagues men with brilliant
futures is to be explained by their ability to discern greatness at an early
age or by the fact that election to the fellowship opens the door to
achievement in public affairs. There is some reason to believe that the
second of these two alternatives is of greater weight. As the biographer
of Viscount Halifax has put it, "It is safe to assert that the Fellow of All
Souls is a man marked out for a position of authority in public life, and
there is no surprise if he reaches the summit of power, but only disap-
pointment if he falls short of the opportunities that are set out before
him." 1

One Fellow of All Souls has confessed in a published work that his

22 / The Anglo-American Establishment

career was based on his membership in this college. The Right Rev-
erend Herbert Hensley Henson, who rose from humble origins to
become Bishop of Durham, wrote in his memoirs: "My election to a
fellowship, against all probability, and certainly against all expecta-
tion, had decisive influence on my subsequent career. It brought me
within the knowledge of the late Lord Salisbury, who subsequently
recommended me to the Crown for appointment to a Canonry of
Westminister. ... It is to All Souls College that all the 'success' [!] of
my career is mainly due." 2

It would appear that the College of All Souls is largely influenced not
by the illustrious persons whose names we have listed above (since they
are generally busy elsewhere) but by another group within the college.
This appears when we realize that the Fellows whose fellowships are
renewed for one appointment after another are not generally the ones
with famous names. The realization is increased when we see that these
persons with the power to obtain renewing appointments are members
of a shadowy group with common undergraduate associations, close
personal relationships, similar interests and ideas, and surprisingly
similar biographical experience. It is this shadowy group which in-
cludes the All Souls members of the Milner Group.

In the nineteenth century, Lord Salisbury made little effort to in-
fluence All Souls, although it was a period when influence (especially
in elections to fellowships) was more important than later. He con-
tented himself with recruiting proteges from the college and ap-
parently left the wielding of influence to others, especially to Sir
William Anson. In the twentieth century, the Milner Group has
recruited from and influenced All Souls. This influence has not ex-
tended to the elections to the twenty-one competitive fellowships.
There, merit has unquestionably been the decisive factor. But it has
been exercised in regard to the seventeen ex-officio fellowships, the ten
Distinguished Persons fellowships, and the twelve reelective fellow-
ships. And it has also been important in contributing to the general
direction and policy of the college.

This does not mean that the Milner Group is identical with All Souls,
but merely that it is the chief, if not the controlling, influence in it,
especially in recent years. Many members of the Milner Group are not
members of All Souls, and many members of All Souls are not members
of the Milner Group.

The fact that All Souls is influenced by some outside power has been
recognized by others, but no one so far as I know has succeeded in iden-
tifying this influence. The erratic Christopher Hobhouse, in his recent
book on Oxford, has come closer than most when he wrote: "The senior
common room at All Souls is distinguished above all others by the great
brains which meet there and by the singular unfruitfulness of their col-
laboration. . . . But it is not these who make the running. Rather is it

The Cecil Bloc / 23

the Editor of The Times and his circle of associates — men whom the
public voice has called to no office and entrusted with no respon-
sibility. These individuals elect to consider themselves the powers
behind the scenes. The duty of purveying honest news is elevated in
their eyes into the prerogative of dictating opinion. It is at All Souls
that they meet to decide just how little they will let their readers know;
and their newspaper has been called the All Souls Parish Magazine." 3
The inaccuracy and bitterness of this statement is caused by the scorn
which a devotee of the humanities feels toward the practitioners of the
social sciences, but the writer was shrewd enough to see that an outside
group dominates All Souls. He was also able to see the link between All
Souls and The Times, although quite mistaken in his conclusion that
the latter controls the former. As we shall see, the Milner Group dom-
inates both.

In the present chapter we are concerned only with the relationship
between the Cecil Bloc and All Souls and shall reserve our considera-
tion of the relationships between the Milner Group and the college to a
later chapter. The former relationship can be observed in the following
list of names, a list which is by no means complete:

Name

College

Fellow of
All Souls

C. A. Alington, 1872-

Trinity, Oxford
1891-1895

1896-1903

W. R. Anson, 1843-1914

Balliol 1862-1866

1867-1914; warden
1881-1914

G. N. Curzon, 1859-1925

Balliol 1878-1882

1883-1890

A. H. Hardinge, 1859-1933

Balliol 1878-1881

1881-

A. C. Headlam, 1862-

New College

1881-1885

1885-1897, 1924-

H. H. Henson, 1863-

Non-Collegiate

1881-1884

1884-1891, 1896-
1903; 1939

C. G. Lang, 1864-1945

Balliol 1882-1886

1888-1928

F. W. Pember, 1862-

Balliol 1880-1884

1884-

1910-
Warden, 1914-1932

W. G. F. Phillimore,

Christ Church

1867-

1845-1929

1863-1867

R. E. Prothero, 1852-1937

Balliol 1871-1875

1875-1891

E. Ridley, 1843-1928

Corpus Christi
1862-1866

1866-1882

M. W. Ridley, 1842-1904

Balliol 1861-1865

1865-1874

J. Simon, 1873-

Wadham 1892-1896

1897-

F. J. N. Thesiger, 1868-1933

Magdalen 1887-1891

1892-1899,
1929-1933

24 / The Anglo-American Establishment

The Reverend Cyril A. Alington married Hester Lyttelton, daughter
of the fourth Baron Lyttelton and sister of the famous eight brothers
whom we have mentioned. He was Headmaster of Eton (1916-1933) in
succession to his brother-in-law Edward Lyttelton, and at the same
time chaplain to King George V (1921-1933). Since 1933 he has been
Dean of Durham.

Sir William Anson can best be discussed later. He, Lord Goschen,
and H. A. L. Fisher were the chief instruments by which the Milner
Group entered into All Souls.

George Nathaniel Curzon (Lord Curzon after 1898, 1859-1925)
studied at Eton and Balliol (1872-1882). At the latter he was intimate
with the future Lords Midleton, Selborne, and Salisbury. On grad-
uating, he went on a trip to the Near East with Edward Lyttelton.
Elected a Fellow of All Souls in 1883, he became assistant private
secretary to Lord Salisbury two years later. This set his future career.
As Harold Nicolson says of him in the Dictionary of National
Biography, "His activities centered from that moment on obedience to
Lord Salisbury, an intense interest in foreign and colonial policy, and
the enjoyment of the social amenities." A Member of Parliament from
1886 to 1898, he traveled widely, chiefly in Asia (1887-1894), financing
his trips by writing for The Times. He was Under Secretary in the India
Office (1891-1892), Under Secretary in the Foreign Office (1895-1898),
and Viceroy of India (1899-1905) by Lord Salisbury's appointment. In
the last-named post he had many controversies with the "Balfour-
Brodrick combination" (as Nicolson calls it), and his career was more
difficult thereafter, for, although he did achieve high office again, he
failed to obtain the premiership, and the offices he did obtain always
gave him the appearance rather than the reality of power. These offices
included Lord Privy Seal (1915-1916, 1924-1925), Leader in Lords
(1916-1924), Lord President of the Council (1916-1919), member of
the Imperial War Cabinet (1916-1918), and Foreign Secretary
(1919-1924). Throughout this later period, he was generally in opposi-
tion to what was being supported by the Cecil Bloc and the Milner
Group, but his desire for high office led him to make constant com-
promises with his convictions.

Arthur Henry Hardinge (Sir Arthur after 1904) and his cousin,
Charles Hardinge (Baron Hardinge of Penshurst after 1910), were both
aided in their careers by Lord Salisbury. The former, a Fellow of All
Souls in 1881 and an assistant secretary to Lord Salisbury four years
later, rose to be Minister to Persia, Belgium, and Portugal (1900-1913)
and Ambassador to Spain (1913-1919). The latter worked up in the
diplomatic service to be First Secretary at the Embassy in St.
Petersburg (1898-1903), then was Assistant Under Secretary and Per-
manent Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs (1903-1904, 1906-1910,

The Cecil Bloc / 25

1916-1920), Ambassador at St. Petersburg (1904-1906), Viceroy of
India (1910-1916), and Ambassador at Paris (1920-1922). Charles Har-
dinge, although almost unknown to many people, is one of the most
significant figures in the formation of British foreign policy in the
twentieth century. He was the close personal friend and most impor-
tant adviser on foreign policy of King Edward VII and accompanied
the King on all his foreign diplomatic tours. His post as Under
Secretary was kept available for him during these trips and in later life
during his service as Ambassador and Viceroy. He presents the only
case in British history where an ex-Ambassador and ex- Viceroy was to
be found in the position of Under Secretary. He was probably the most
important single person in the formation of the Entente Cordiale in
1904 and was very influential in the formation of the understanding
with Russia in 1907. His son, Captain Alexander Hardinge, married
Milner's stepdaughter, Helen Mary Cecil, in 1921 and succeeded his
father as Baron Hardinge of Penshurst in 1944. He was equerry and
assistant private secretary to King George V (1920-1936) and private
secretary and extra equerry to both Edward VIII and George VI
(1936-1943). He had a son, George Edward Hardinge (born 1921),
who married Janet Christian Goschen, daughter of Lieutenant Colonel
F. C. C. Balfour, granddaughter of the second Viscount Goschen and
of Lady Goschen, the former Lady Evelyn Gathorne-Hardy (fifth
daughter of the first Earl of Cranbrook). Thus a grandchild of Milner
was united with a great-grandchild of his old benefactor, Lord
Goschen. 4

Among the persons recruited from All Souls by Lord Salisbury were
two future prelates of the Anglican Church. These were Cosmo
Gordon Lang, Fellow for forty years, and Herbert Hensley Henson,
Fellow for twenty-four years. Lang was Bishop of Stepney
(1901-1908), Archbishop of York (1908-1928), and Archbishop of
Canterbury (1928-1942). Henson was Canon of Westminister Abbey
(1900-1912), Dean of Durham (1912-1918), and Bishop of Hereford
and of Durham (1918-1939).

The Right Reverend Arthur Cayley Headlam was a Fellow of All
Souls for about forty years and, in addition, was editor of the Church
Quarterly Review, Regius Professor of Divinity, and Bishop of
Gloucester. He is chiefly of interest to us because his younger brother,
James W. Headlam-Morley (1863-1929), was a member of the Milner
Group. James (Sir James in 1929) was put by the Group into the
Department of Information (under John Buchan, 1917-1918), and the
Foreign Office (under Milner and Curzon, 1918-1928), went to the
Peace Conference in 1919, edited the first published volume of British
Documents on the Origin of the War (1926), and was a mainstay of the
Royal Institute of International Affairs, where his portrait still hangs.

26 / The Anglo-American Establishment

His daughter, Agnes, was made Montague Burton Professor of Inter-
national Relations at Oxford in 1948. This was a position strongly in-
fluenced by the Milner Group.

Francis W. Pember was used by Lord Salisbury from time to time as
assistant legal adviser to the Foreign Office. He was Warden of All
Souls in succession to Anson (1914-1932).

Walter Phillimore (Lord Phillimore after 1918) was admitted to All
Souls with Anson in 1867. He was a lifelong friend and associate of the
second Viscount Halifax (1839-1934). The latter devoted his life to the
cause of church union and was for fifty-two years (1868-1919, 1934)
president of the English Church Union. In this post he was succeeded
in 1919 by Lord Phillimore, who had been serving as vice-president for
many years and who was an intimate friend of the Halifax family. It
was undoubtedly through Phillimore that the present Earl of Halifax,
then simple Edward Wood, was elected to All Souls in 1903 and
became an important member of the Milner Group. Phillimore was a
specialist in ecclesiastical law, and it created a shock when Lord
Salisbury made him a judge of the Queen's Bench in 1897, along with
Edward Ridley, who had entered All Souls as a Fellow the year before
Phillimore. The echoes of this shock can still be discerned in Lord
Sankey's brief sketch of Phillimore in the Dictionary of National
Biography. Phillimore became a Lord Justice of Appeal in 1913 and in
1918 drew up one of the two British drafts for the Covenant of the
League of Nations. The other draft, known as the Cecil Draft, was at-
tributed to Lord Robert Cecil but was largely the work of Alfred
Zimmern, a member of the Milner Group.

Rowland Edmund Prothero (Lord Ernie after 1919) and his brother,
George W. Prothero (Sir George after 1920), are two of the most im-
portant links between the Cecil Bloc and the Milner Group. They grew
up on the Isle of Wight in close contact with Queen Victoria, who was
a family friend. Through the connection, the elder Prothero was asked
to tutor the Duke of Bedford in 1878, a position which led to his ap-
pointment in 1899 as agent-in-chief of the Duke. In the interval he was
a Fellow of All Souls for sixteen years and engaged in literary work,
writing unsigned articles for the Edinburgh Review, the Church
Quarterly Review and The Quarterly Review. Of the last, possibly
through the influence of Lord Salisbury, he became editor for five
years (1894-1899), being succeeded in the position by his brother for
twenty-three years (1899-1922).

As agent of the extensive agricultural holdings of the Duke of Bed-
ford, Prothero became familar with agricultural problems and began
to write on the subject. He ran for Parliament from Bedfordshire as a
Unionist, on a platform advocating tariff reform, in 1907 and again in
1910, but in spite of his influential friends, he was not successful. He

The Cecil Bloc / 27

wrote of these efforts: "I was a stranger to the political world, without
friends in the House of Commons. The only men prominent in public
life whom I knew with any degree of real intimacy were Curzon and
Milner." 5 In 1914, at Anson's death, he was elected to succeed him as
one of Oxford's representatives in Parliament. Almost immediately he
was named a member of Milner's Committee on Home Production of
Food (1915), and the following year was on Lord Selborne's committee
concerned with the same problem. At this point in his autobiography,
Prothero wrote: "Milner and I were old friends. We had been under-
graduates together at Balliol College. . . . The outside world thought
him cold and reserved. . . . But between Milner and myself there was
no barrier, mainly, I think, because we were both extremely shy men."
The interim report of the Selborne Committee repeated the recommen-
dations of the Milner Committee in December 1916. At the same time
came the Cabinet crisis, and Prothero was named President of the
Board of Agriculture with a seat in the new Cabinet. Several persons
close to the Milner Group were put into the department, among them
Sir Sothern Holland, Mrs. Alfred Lyttelton, Lady Evelyn Cecil, and
Lord Goschen (son of Milner's old friend). Prothero retired from the
cabinet and Parliament in 1919, was made a baron in the same year,
and a Fellow of Balliol in 1922.

Sir George W. Prothero (1848-1922), brother of Lord Ernie, had
been lecturer in history at his own college at Cambridge University and
the first professor in the new Chair of Modern History at Edinburgh
before he became editor of The Quarterly Review in 1899. He was
editor of the Cambridge Modern History (1902-1912), Chichele
Lecturer in History (1915), and director of the Historical Section of the
Foreign Office and general editor of the Peace Handbooks, 155
volumes of studies preparatory to the Peace Conference (1917-1919).
Besides his strictly historical works, he wrote a Memoir of J.R. Seeley
and edited and published Seeley 's posthumous Growth of British
Polity. He also wrote the sketch of Lord Selborne in the Dictionary of
National Biography. His own sketch in the same work was written by
Algernon Cecil, nephew of Lord Salisbury, who had worked with Pro-
thero in the Historical Section of the Foreign Office. The same writer
also wrote the sketches of Arthur Balfour and Lord Salisbury in the
same collective work. All three are very revealing sources for this
present study.

G. W. Prothero's work on the literary remains of Seeley must have
endeared him to the Milner Group, for Seeley was regarded as a
precursor by the inner circle of the Group. For example, Lionel Curtis,
in a letter to Philip Kerr (Lord Lothian) in November 1916, wrote:
"Seeley 's results were necessarily limited by his lack of any knowledge
at first hand either of the Dominions or of India. With the Round

28 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Table organization behind him Seeley by his own knowledge and in-
sight might have gone further than us. If we have been able to go fur-
ther than him it is not merely that we followed in his train, but also
because we have so far based our study of the relations of these coun-
tries on a preliminary field-study of the countries concerned, con-
ducted in close cooperation with people in those countries." 6

Matthew White Ridley (Viscount Ridley after 1900) and his younger
brother, Edward Ridley (Sir Edward after 1897), were both proteges
of Lord Salisbury and married into the Cecil Bloc. Matthew was a
Member of Parliament (1868-1885, 1886-1900) and held the offices of
Under Secretary of the Home Department (1878-1880), Financial
Secretary of the Treasury in Salisbury's first government (1885-1886),
and Home Secretary in Salisbury's third government (1895-1900). He
was made a Privy Councillor during Salisbury's second government.
His daughter, Grace, married the future third Earl of Selborne in
1910, while his son married Rosamond Guest, sister of Lady
Chelmsford and future sister-in-law of Frances Lyttelton (daughter of
the eighth Viscount Cobham and the former Mary Cavendish).

Edward Ridley beat out Anson for the fellowship to All Souls in
1866, but in the following year both Anson and Phillimore were admit-
ted. Ridley and Phillimore were appointed to the Queen's Bench of the
High Court of Justice in 1897 by Lord Salisbury. The former held the
post for twenty years (1897-1917).

John Simon (Viscount Simon since 1940) came into the Cecil Bloc
and the Milner Group through All Souls. He received his first govern-
mental task as junior counsel for Britain in the Alaska Boundary Ar-
bitration of 1903. A Member of Parliament as a Liberal and National
Liberal (except for a brief interval of four years) from the great elec-
toral overturn of 1906 to his elevation to the upper house in 1940, he
held governmental posts for a large portion of that period. He was
Solicitor General (1910-1913), Attorney General (1913-1915), Home
Secretary (1915-1916), Foreign Secretary (1931-1935), Home Secretary
again (1935-1937), Chancellor of the Exchequer (1937-1940), and,
finally, Lord Chancellor (1940-1945). He was also chairman of the In-
dian Statutory Commission (1927-1930).

Frederic John Napier Thesiger (Lord Chelmsford after 1905) was
taken by Balfour from the London County Council in 1905 to be
Governor of Queensland (1905-1909) and later Governor of New South
Wales (1907-1913). In the latter post he established a contact with the
inner circle of the Milner Group, which was useful to both parties
later. He was Viceroy of India in 1916-1921 and First Lord of the Ad-
miralty in the brief Labour government of 1924. He married Frances
Guest in 1894 while still at All Souls and may have been the contact by

The Cecil Bloc / 29

which her sister married Matthew Ridley in 1899 and her brother mar-
ried Frances Lyttelton in 1911.

The Cecil Bloc did not disappear with the death of Lord Salisbury in
1903 but was continued for a considerable period by Balfour. It did
not, however, continue to grow but, on the contrary, became looser
and less disciplined, for Balfour lacked the qualities of ambition and
determination necessary to control or develop such a group. Ac-
cordingly, the Cecil Bloc, while still in existence as a political and
social power, has largely been replaced by the Milner Group. This
Group, which began as a dependent fief of the Cecil Bloc, has since
1916 become increasingly the active portion of the Bloc and in fact its
real center. Milner possessed those qualities of determination and am-
bition which Balfour lacked, and was willing to sacrifice all personal
happiness and social life to his political goals, something which was
quite unacceptable to the pleasure-loving Balfour. Moreover, Milner
was intelligent enough to see that it was not possible to continue a
political group organized in the casual and familiar way in which it
had been done by Lord Salisbury. Milner shifted the emphasis from
family connection to ideological agreement. The former had become
less useful with the rise of a class society based on economic conflicts
and with the extension of democracy. Salisbury was fundamentally a
conservative, while Milner was not. Where Salisbury sought to build
up a bloc of friends and relatives to exercise the game of politics and to
maintain the Old England that they all loved, Milner was not really a
conservative at all. Milner had an idea — the idea he had obtained from
Toynbee and that he found also in Rhodes and in all the members of his
Group. This idea had two parts: that the extension and integration of
the Empire and the development of social welfare were essential to the
continued existence of the British way of life; and that this British way
of life was an instrument which unfolded all the best and highest
capabilities of mankind. Working with this ideology derived from
Toynbee and Balliol, Milner used the power and the general strategic
methods of the Cecil Bloc to build up his own Group. But, realizing
that conditions had changed, he put much greater emphasis on prop-
aganda activities and on ideological unity within the Group. These
were both made necessary by the extension of political democracy and
the rise of economic democracy as a practical political issue. These new
developments had made it impossible to be satisfied with a group held
together by no more than family and social connections and animated
by no more far-sighted goal than the preservation of the existing social
structure.

The Cecil Bloc did not resist this change by Milner of the aims and
tactics of their older leader. The times made it clear to all that methods

30 / The Anglo-American Establishment

must be changed. However, it is possible that the split which appeared
within the Conservative Party in England after 1923 followed roughly
the lines between the Milner Group and the Cecil Bloc.

It should perhaps be pointed out that the Cecil Bloc was a social
rather than a partisan group — at first, at least. Until 1890 or so it con-
tained members of both political parties, including the leaders,
Salisbury and Gladstone. The relationship between the two parties on
the topmost level could be symbolized by the tragic romance between
Salisbury's nephew and Gladstone's niece, ending in the death of the
latter in 1875. After the split in the Liberal Party in 1886, it was
the members of the Cecil Bloc who became Unionists — that is, the
Lytteltons, the Wyndhams, the Cavendishes. As a result, the Cecil Bloc
became increasingly a political force. Gladstone remained socially a
member of it, and so did his protege, John Morley, but almost all the
other members of the Bloc were Unionists or Conservatives. The chief
exceptions were the four leaders of the Liberal Party after Gladstone,
who were strong imperialists: Rosebery, Asquith, Edward Grey, and
Haldane. These four supported the Boer War, grew increasingly anti-
German, supported the World War in 1914, and were close to the
Milner Group politically, intellectually, and socially. 7

Socially, the Cecil Bloc could be divided into three generations. The
first (including Salisbury, Gladstone, the seventh Duke of Devonshire,
the eighth Viscount Midleton, Goschen, the fourth Baron Lyttelton,
the first Earl of Cranbrook, the first Duke of Westminster, the first
Baron Leconfield, the tenth Earl of Wemyss, etc.) was not as "social"
(in the frivolous sense) as the second. This first generation was born in
the first third of the nineteenth century, went to both Oxford and
Cambridge in the period 1830-1855, and died in the period 1890-1915.
The second generation was born in the second third of the nineteenth
century, went almost exclusively to Oxford (chiefly Balliol) in the
period 1860-1880, and died in the period 1920-1930. This second
generation was much more social in a spectacularly frivolous sense,
much more intellectual (in the sense that they read books and talked
philosophy or social problems) and centered on a social group known at
the time as "The Souls." The third generation of the Cecil Bloc, con-
sisting of persons born in the last third of the nineteenth century, went
to Oxford almost exclusively (New College or Balliol) in the period
1890-1905 and began to die off about 1940. This third generation of the
Cecil Bloc was dominated and organized about the Milner Group. It
was very serious-minded, very political, and very secretive.

The first two generations did not regard themselves as an organized
group but rather as "Society." The Bloc was symbolized in the first two
generations in two exclusive dining clubs called "The Club" and
"Grillion's." The membership of the two was very similar, with about

The Cecil Bloc / 31

forty persons in each and a total of not over sixty in both together. Both
organizations had illustrious pasts. The Club, founded in 1764, had as
past members Joshua Reynolds (founder), Samuel Johnson, Edmund
Burke, Oliver Goldsmith, James Boswell, Edward Gibbon, Charles
Fox, David Garrick, Adam Smith, Richard B. Sheridan, George
Canning, Humphry Davy, Walter Scott, Lord Liverpool, Henry
Hallam, Lord Brougham, T. B. Macauley, Lord John Russell, George
Grote, Dean Stanley, W. E. H. Lecky, Lord Kelvin, Matthew Arnold,
T. H. Huxley, Bishop Wilberforce, Bishop Stubbs, Bishop Creighton,
Gladstone, Lord Salisbury, Balfour, John Morley, Richard Jebb, Lord
Goschen, Lord Acton, Lord Rosebery, Archbishop Lang, F. W.
Pember (Warden of All Souls), Lord Asquith, Edward Grey, Lord
Haldane, Hugh Cecil, John Simon, Charles Oman, Lord Tennyson,
Rudyard Kipling, Gilbert Murray, H. A. L. Fisher, John Buchan,
Maurice Hankey, the fourth Marquess of Salisbury, Lord Lansdowne,
Bishop Henson, Halifax, Stanley Baldwin, Austen Chamberlain, Lord
Carnock, and Lord Hewart. This list includes only members up to
1925. There were, as we have said, only forty members at any one
time, and at meetings (dinner every fortnight while Parliament was in
session) usually only about a dozen were present.

Grillion's was very similar to The Club. Founded in 1812, it had the
same members and met under the same conditions, except weekly (din-
ner when Parliament was in session). The following list includes the
names I can find of those who were members up to 1925: Gladstone,
Salisbury, Lecky, Balfour, Asquith, Edward Grey, Haldane, Lord
Bryce, Hugh Cecil, Robert Cecil, Curzon, Neville Lyttelton, Eustace
Percy, John Simon, Geoffrey Dawson, Walter Raleigh, Balfour of
Burleigh, and Gilbert Murray. 8

The second generation of the Cecil Bloc was famous at the time that
it was growing up (and political power was still in the hands of the first
generation) as "The Souls," a term applied to them partly in derision
and partly in envy but used by themselves later. This group, flitting
about from one great country house to another or from one spectacular
social event to another in the town houses of their elders, has been
preserved for posterity in the autobiographical volumes of Margot
Tennant Asquith and has been caricatured in the writings of Oscar
Wilde. The frivolity of this group can be seen in Margot Tennant's
statement that she obtained for Milner his appointment to the chair-
manship of the Board of Inland Revenue in 1892 merely by writing to
Balfour and asking for it after she had a too brief romantic interlude
with Milner in Egypt. As a respected scholar of my acquaintance has
said, this group did everything in a frivolous fashion, including enter-
ing the Boer War and the First World War.

One of the enduring creations of the Cecil Bloc is the Society for

32 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Psychical Research, which holds a position in the history of the Cecil
Bloc similar to that held by the Royal Institute of International Affairs
in the Milner Group. The Society was founded in 1882 by the Balfour
family and their in-laws, Lord Rayleigh and Professor Sidgwick. In the
twentieth century it was dominated by those members of the Cecil Bloc
who became most readily members of the Milner Group. Among these
we might mention Gilbert Murray, who performed a notable series of
experiments with his daughter, Mrs. Arnold J. Toynbee, in the years
before 1914, and Dame Edith Lyttelton, herself a Balfour and widow
of Arthur Balfour's closest friend, who was president of the Society in
1933-1934.

The third generation was quite different, partly because it was
dominated by Milner, one of the few completely serious members of
the second generation. This third generation was serious if not pro-
found, studious if not broadly educated, and haunted consistently by
the need to act quickly to avoid impending disaster. This fear of
disaster they shared with Rhodes and Milner, but they still had the
basic weakness of the second generation (except Milner and a few other
adopted members of that Group), namely that they got everything too
easily. Political power, wealth, and social position came to this third
generation as a gift from the second, without the need to struggle for
what they got or to analyze the foundations of their beliefs. As a result,
while awake to the impending disaster, they were not able to avoid it,
but instead tinkered and tampered until the whole system blew up in
their faces.

This third generation, especially the Milner Group, which formed its
core, differed from its two predecessors in its realization that it formed
a group. The first generation had regarded itself as "England," the
second regarded itself as "Society," but the third realized it was a secret
group — or at least its inner circles did. From Milner and Rhodes they
got this idea of a secret group of able and determined men, but they
never found a name for it, contenting themselves with calling it "the
Group," or "the Band," or even "Us." 9

The Secret Society
of Cecil Rhodes 1

When Milner went to South Africa in 1897, Rhodes and he were
already old acquaintances of many years' standing. We have already
indicated that they were contemporaries at Oxford, but, more than
that, they were members of a secret society which had been founded in
1891. Moreover, Milner was, if not in 1897, at least by 1901, Rhodes's
chosen successor in the leadership of that society.

The secret society of Cecil Rhodes is mentioned in the first five of his
seven wills. In the fifth it was supplemented by the idea of an educa-
tional institution with scholarships, whose alumni would be bound
together by common ideals — Rhodes's ideals. In the sixth and seventh
wills the secret society was not mentioned, and the scholarships
monopolized the estate. But Rhodes still had the same ideals and still
believed that they could be carried out best by a secret society of men
devoted to a common cause. The scholarships were merely a facade to
conceal the secret society, or, more accurately, they were to be one of
the instruments by which the members of the secret society could carry
out his purpose. This purpose, as expressed in the first will (1877), was:

The extension of British rule throughout the world, the perfecting of a
system of emigration from the United Kingdom and of colonization by
British subjects of all lands wherein the means of livelihood are attainable
by energy, labour, and enterprise, . . . the ultimate recovery of the United
States of America as an integral part of a British Empire, the consolida-
tion of the whole Empire, the inauguration of a system of Colonial
Representation in the Imperial Parliament which may tend to weld to-
gether the disjointed members of the Empire, and finally the foundation
of so great a power as to hereafter render wars impossible and promote
the best interests of humanity.

To achieve this purpose, Rhodes, in this first will, written while he
was still an undergraduate of Oxford at the age of twenty-four, left all
his wealth to the Secretary of State for the Colonies (Lord Carnarvon)
and to the Attorney General of Griqualand West (Sidney Shippard), to

33

34 / The Anglo-American Establishment

be used to create a secret society patterned on the Jesuits. The reference
to the Jesuits as the model for his secret society is found in a "Confession
of Faith" which Rhodes had written two years earlier (1875) and which
he enclosed in his will. Thirteen years later, in a letter to the trustee of
his third will, Rhodes told how to form the secret society, saying, "In
considering questions suggested take Constitution of the Jesuits if ob-
tainable and insert 'English Empire' for 'Roman Catholic Religion.' "
In his "Confession of Faith" Rhodes outlined the types of persons
who might be useful members of this secret society. As listed by the
American Secretary to the Rhodes Trust, this list exactly describes the
group formed by Milner in South Africa:

Men of ability and enthusiasm who find no suitable way to serve their
country under the current political system; able youth recruited from the
schools and universities; men of wealth with no aim in life; younger sons
with high thoughts and great aspirations but without opportunity; rich
men whose careers are blighted by some great disappointment. All must
be men of ability and character. . . . Rhodes envisages a group of the
ablest and the best, bound together by common unselfish ideals of service
to what seems to him the greatest cause in the world. There is no mention
of material rewards. This is to be a kind of religious brotherhood like the
Jesuits, "a church for the extension of the British Empire."

In each of his seven wills, Rhodes entrusted his bequest to a group of
men to carry out his purpose. In the first will, as we have seen, the
trustees were Lord Carnarvon and Sidney Shippard. In the second will
(1882), the sole trustee was his friend N. E. Pickering. In the third will
(1888), Pickering having died, the sole trustee was Lord Rothschild. In
the fourth will (1891), W. T. Stead was added, while in the fifth
(1892), Rhodes 's solicitor, B. F. Hawksley, was added to the previous
two. In the sixth (1893) and seventh (1899) wills, the personnel of the
trustees shifted considerably, ending up, at Rhodes 's death in 1902,
with a board of seven trustees: Lord Milner, Lord Rosebery, Lord
Grey, Alfred Beit, L. L. Michell, B. F. Hawksley, and Dr. Starr
Jameson. This is the board to which the world looked to set up the
Rhodes Scholarships.

Dr. Frank Aydelotte, the best-known American authority on
Rhodes's wills, claims that Rhodes made no reference to the secret
society in his last two wills because he had abandoned the idea. The
first chapter of his recent book, The American Rhodes Scholarships,
states and reiterates that between 1891 and 1893 Rhodes underwent a
great change in his point of view and matured in his judgment to the
point that in his sixth will "he abandons forever his youthful idea of a
secret society." This is completely untrue, and there is no evidence to
support such a statement. 2 On the contrary, all the evidence, both

The Secret Society of Cecil Rhodes / 35

direct and circumstantial, indicates that Rhodes wanted the secret
society from 1875 to his death in 1902. By Dr. Aydelotte's own admis-
sion, Rhodes wanted the society from 1877 to 1893, a period of sixteen
years. Accepted practice in the use of historical evidence requires us to
believe that Rhodes persisted in this idea for the remaining nine years
of his life, unless there exists evidence to the contrary. There is no such
evidence. On the other hand, there is direct evidence that he did not
change his ideas. Two examples of this evidence can be mentioned
here. On 5 February 1896, three years after his sixth will, Rhodes
ended a long conversation with R. B. Brett (later Lord Esher) by say-
ing, "Wish we could get our secret society." And in April 1900, a year
after he wrote his seventh and last will, Rhodes was reprimanding
Stead for his opposition to the Boer War, on the grounds that in this
case he should have been willing to accept the judgment of the men on
the spot who had made the war. Rhodes said to Stead, "That is the
curse which will be fatal to our ideas — insubordination. Do not you
think it is very disobedient of you? How can our Society be worked if
each one sets himself up as the sole judge of what ought to be done? Just
look at the position here. We three are in South Africa, all of us your
boys ... I myself, Milner, and Garrett, all of whom learned their
politics from you. We are on the spot, and we are unanimous in declar-
ing this war to be necessary. You have never been in South Africa, and
yet, instead of deferring to the judgment of your own boys, you fling
yourself into a violent opposition to the war." 3

Dr. Aydelotte's assumption that the scholarships were an alternative
to the secret society is quite untenable, for all the evidence indicates
that the scholarships were but one of several instruments through
which the society would work. In 1894 Stead discussed with Rhodes
how the secret society would work and wrote about it after Rhodes's
death as follows: "We also discussed together various projects for pro-
paganda, the formation of libraries, the creation of lectureships, the
dispatch of emissaries on missions of propaganda throughout the Em-
pire, and the steps to be taken to pave the way for the foundation and
the acquisition of a newspaper which was to be devoted to the service
of the cause." This is an exact description of the way in which the
society, that is the Milner Group, has functioned. Moreover, when
Rhodes talked with Stead, in January 1895, about the scholarships at
Oxford, he did not abandon the society but continued to speak of it as
the real power behind the scholarships. It is perfectly clear that Rhodes
omitted mentioning the secret society in his last two wills because he
knew that by that time he was so famous that the one way to keep a
society from being secret would be to mention it in his will. Obviously,
if Rhodes wanted the secret society after 1893, he would have made no
mention of it in his will but would have left his money in trust for a

36 / The Anglo-American Establishment

legitimate public purpose and arranged for the creation of the secret
society by a private understanding with his trustees. This is clearly
what happened, because the secret society was established, and Milner
used Rhodes's money to finance it, just as Rhodes had intended. 4

The creation of the secret society was the essential core of Rhodes's
plans at all times. Stead, even after Rhodes's death, did not doubt that
the attempt would be made to continue the society. In his book on
Rhodes's wills he wrote in one place: "Mr. Rhodes was more than the
founder of a dynasty. He aspired to be the creator of one of those vast
semi-religious, quasi-political associations which, like the Society of
Jesus, have played so large a part in the history of the world. To be
more strictly accurate, he wished to found an Order as the instrument
of the will of the Dynasty, and while he lived he dreamed of being both
its Caesar and its Loyola. It was this far-reaching, world-wide aspira-
tion of the man which rendered, to those who knew him, so absurdly
inane the speculations of his critics as to his real motives." Sixty pages
later Stead wrote: "The question that now arises is whether in the
English-speaking world there are to be found men of faith adequate to
furnish forth materials for the Society of which Mr. Rhodes dreamed."

This idea of a society throughout the world working for federal
union fascinated Milner as it had fascinated Rhodes. We have already
mentioned the agreement which he signed with George Parkin in 1893,
to propagandize for this purpose. Eight years later, in a letter to Parkin
from South Africa, Milner wrote at length on the subject of imperial
union and ended: "Good-bye for today. Keep up the touch. I wish we
had some like-minded persons in New Zealand and Australia, who
were personal friends. More power to your elbow." 5 Moreover, there
were several occasions after 1902 when Milner referred to his desire to
see "a powerful body of men" working "outside the existing political
parties" for imperial unity. He referred to this desire in his letter to
Congdon in 1904 and referred to it again in his "farewell speech" to the
Kindergarten in 1905. There is also a piece of negative evidence which
seems to me to be of considerable significance. In 1912 Parkin wrote a
book called The Rhodes Scholarships, in which he devoted several
pages to Rhodes's wills. Although he said something about each will
and gave the date of each will, he said nothing about the secret society.
Now this secret society, which is found in five out of the seven wills, is
so astonishing that Parkin's failure to mention it must be deliberate. He
would have no reason to pass it by in silence unless the society had been
formed. If the existing Rhodes Trust were a more mature alternative
for the secret society rather than a screen for it, there would be no
reason to pass it by, but, on the contrary, an urgent need to mention it
as a matter of great intrinsic interest and as an example of how
Rhodes's ideas matured.

The Secret Society of Cecil Rhodes / 37

As a matter of fact, Rhodes's ideas did not mature. The one fact
which appears absolutely clearly in every biography of Rhodes is the
fact that from 1875 to 1902 his ideas neither developed nor matured.
Parkin, who clearly knew of the secret society, even if he did not men-
tion it, says in regard to Rhodes's last will: "It is essential to remember
that this final will is consistent with those which had preceded it, that
it was no late atonement for errors, as some have supposed, but was the
realization of life-long dreams persistently pursued."

Leaving aside all hypothesis, the facts are clear: Rhodes wanted to
create a worldwide secret group devoted to English ideals and to the
Empire as the embodiment of these ideals, and such a group was
created. It was created in the period after 1890 by Rhodes, Stead, and,
above all, by Milner.

The idea of a secret international group of propagandists for federal
imperialism was by no means new to Milner when he became Rhodes
Trustee in 1901, since he had been brought into Rhodes's secret society
as the sixth member in 1891. This was done by his old superior, W. T.
Stead. Stead, as we have indicated, was the chief Rhodes confidant in
England and very close to Milner. Although Stead did not meet Rhodes
until 1889, Rhodes regarded himself as a disciple of Stead's much
earlier and eagerly embraced the idea of imperial federation based on
Home Rule. It was in pursuit of this idea that Rhodes contributed
£10,000 to Parnell in 1888. Although Rhodes accepted Stead's ideas, he
did not decide that Stead was the man he wanted to be his lieutenant in
the secret society until Stead was sent to prison in 1885 for his articles
on organized vice in the Pall Mall Gazette. This courageous episode
convinced Rhodes to such a degree that he tried to see Stead in prison
but was turned away. After Stead was released, Rhodes did not find
the opportunity to meet him until 4 April 1889. The excitement of that
day for Stead can best be shown by quoting portions of the letter which
he wrote to Mrs. Stead immediately after the conference. It said:

Mr. Rhodes is my manl I have just had three hours talk with him. He is
full of a far more gorgeous idea in connection with the paper than even I
have had. I cannot tell you his scheme because it is too secret. But it in-
volves millions. He had no idea that it would cost £250,000 to start a
paper. But he offered me down as a free gift £20,000 to buy a share in the
P.M. Gazette as a beginning. Next year he would do more. He expects to
own before he dies 4 or 5 millions, all of which he will leave to carry out
the scheme of which the paper is an integral part. He is giving £500,000 to
make a railway to Matabeleland, and so has not available, just at this mo-
ment, the money necessary for starting the morning paper. His ideas are
federation, expansion, and consolidation of the Empire. ... He took to
me. Told me some things he has told no other man — save Lord
Rothschild — and pressed me to take the £20,000, not to have any return,

38 / The Anglo-American Establishment

to give no receipt, to simply take it and use it to give me a freer hand on
the P.M.G. It seems all like a fairy dream. . . . He said he had taken his
ideas from the P.M.G. , that the paper permeated South Africa, that he
met it everywhere. . . . How good God is to me. . . . Remember all the
above about R. is very private.

The day following this sensational conversation Stead lost a libel ac-
tion to the amount of £2000 damages. Rhodes at once sent a check to
cover it and said: "You must keep my confidence secret. The idea is
right, but until sure of the lines would be ruined in too many hands.
Your subsidiary press idea can be discussed without risk, but the inner
circle behind would never be many, perhaps three or four." 8

About the same time, Rhodes revealed to Stead his plans to establish
the British South Africa Company and asked him who in England
could best help him get the necessary charter. Stead recommended
Albert Grey, the future Earl Grey, who had been an intimate friend of
Stead's since 1873 and had been a member of the Milner-Toynbee
group in 1880-1884. As a result, Grey became one of the original direc-
tors of the British South Africa Company and took the first steps which
eventually brought him into the select circle of Rhodes's secret society.

This society took another step forward during Rhodes's visit to
England in February 1890. The evidence for this is to be found in the
Journals of Lord Esher (at that time R. B. Brett), who had obviously
been let in on the plan by Stead. Under date of 3 February 1890, we
read in these Journals: "Cecil Rhodes arrived last night from South
Africa. I was at Stead's today when he called. I left them together.
Tonight I saw Stead again. Rhodes had talked for three hours of all his
great schemes. . . . Rhodes is a splendid enthusiast. But he looks upon
men as 'machines.' This is not very penetrating." Twelve days after
this, on 15 February, at Lord Rothschild's country house, Brett wrote
in his journal: "Came here last night. Cecil Rhodes, Arthur Balfour,
Harcourts, Albert Grey, Alfred Lyttelton. A long talk with Rhodes to-
day. He has vast ideas. Imperial notions. He seems disinterested. But
he is very ruse and, I suspect, quite unscrupulous as to the means he
employs." 7

The secret society, after so much preliminary talk, took form in
1891, the same year in which Rhodes drew up his fourth will and made
Stead as well as Lord Rothschild the trustee of his fortune. It is per-
fectly clear from the evidence that he expected Rothschild to handle
the financial investments associated with the trust, while Stead was to
have full charge of the methods by which the funds were used. About
the same time, in February 1891, Stead and Rhodes had another long
discussion about the secret society. First they discussed their goals and
agreed that, if necessary in order to achieve Anglo-American unity,
Britain should join the United States. Then they discussed the organiza-

The Secret Society of Cecil Rhodes / 39

tion of the secret society and divided it into two circles: an inner circle,
"The Society of the Elect", and an outer circle to include "The Associa-
tion of Helpers" and The Review of Reviews (Stead's magazine,
founded 1890). Rhodes said that he had already revealed the plan for
"The Society of the Elect" to Rothschild and "little Johnston." By "little
Johnston" he meant Harry H. Johnston (Sir Harry after 1896), African
explorer and administrator, who had laid the basis for the British
claims to Nyasaland, Kenya, and Uganda. Johnston was, according to
Sir Frederick Whyte, the biographer of Stead, virtually unknown in
England before Stead published his portrait as the frontispiece to the
first issue of The Review of Reviews in 1890. 8 This was undoubtedly
done on behalf of Rhodes. Continuing their discussion of the member-
ship of "The Society of the Elect," Stead asked permission to bring in
Milner and Brett. Rhodes agreed, so they telegraphed at once to Brett,
who arrived in two hours. They then drew up the following "ideal ar-
rangement" for the society:

1. General Of the Society: Rhodes

2. Junta of Three: Stead

Brett
Milner

3. Circle of Initiates: Cardinal Manning

General Booth
Bramwell Booth
"Little" Johnston
Albert Grey
Arthur Balfour

4. The Association of Helpers

5. A Collece, under Professor Seeley, to be established
"to train people in the English-speaking idea."

Within the next few weeks Stead had another talk with Rhodes and a
talk with Milner, who was "filled with admiration" for the scheme, ac-
cording to Stead's notes as published by Sir Frederick Whyte.

The "ideal arrangement" for the secret society, as drawn up in 1891,
never came into effect in all its details. The organization as drawn on
paper reflected the romantic and melodramatic ideas of Cecil Rhodes
and Stead, and doubtless they envisioned formal initiations, oaths,
secret signs of recognition, etc. Once Milner and Brett were made
initiates, the atmosphere changed. To them secret signs or oaths were
so much claptrap and neither necessary nor desirable, for the initiates
knew each other intimately and had implicit trust in each other
without the necessity of signs or oaths. Thus the melodrama envisioned
by Rhodes was watered down without in any way reducing the
seriousness with which the initiates determined to use their own per-
sonal influence and Rhodes's wealth and power to achieve the con-

40 / The Anglo-American Establishment

solidation of the British Empire, which they shared as an ideal with
Rhodes.

With the elimination of signs, oaths, and formal initiations, the
criteria for membership in "The Society of the Elect" became
knowledge of the secret society and readiness to cooperate with the
other initiates toward their common goal. The distinction between the
initiates and The Association of Helpers rested on the fact that while
members of both circles were willing to cooperate with one another in
order to achieve their common goal, the initiates knew of the secret
society, while the "helpers" probably did not. This distinction rapidly
became of little significance, for the members of The Association of
Helpers would have been very stupid if they had not realized that they
were members of a secret group working in cooperation with other
members of the same group. Moreover, the Circle of Initiates became
in time of less importance because as time passed the members of this
select circle died, were alienated, or became less immediately con-
cerned with the project. As a result, the secret society came to be
represented almost completely by The Association of Helpers — that is,
by the group with which Milner was most directly concerned. And
within this Association of Helpers there appeared in time gradations of
intimacy, the more select ones participating in numerous areas of the
society's activity and the more peripheral associated with fewer and
less vital areas. Nevertheless, it is clear that "The Society of the Elect"
continued to exist, and it undoubtedly recruited additional members
now and then from The Association of Helpers. It is a very difficult task
to decide who is and who is not a member of the society as a whole, and
it is even more difficult to decide if a particular member is an initiate or
a helper. Accordingly, the last distinction will not usually be made in
this study. Before we abandon it completely, however, an effort should
be made to name the initiates, in the earlier period at least.

Of the persons so far named, we can be certain that six were
initiates. These were Rhodes, Lord Rothschild, Johnston, Stead, Brett,
and Milner. Of these, Rothschild was largely indifferent and par-
ticipated in the work of the group only casually. Of the others,
Johnston received from £10,000 to £17,000 a year from Rhodes for
several years after 1889, during which period he was trying to
eliminate the influence of slave-traders and the Portuguese from
Nyasaland. About 1894 he became alienated from Rhodes because of
Johnston's refusal to cooperate with him in an attack on the Portuguese
in Manikaland. As a result Johnston ceased to be an active member of
the society. Lord Grey's efforts to heal the breach were only nominally
successful. 9

Stead was also eliminated in an informal fashion in the period
1899-1904, at first by Rhodes's removing him from his trusteeship and

1

The Secret Society of Cecil Rhodes / 41

later by Milner's refusal to use him, confide in him, or even see him,
although continuing to protest his personal affection for him. Since
Milner was the real leader of the society after 1902, this had the effect
of eliminating Stead from the society. 10

Of the others mentioned, there is no evidence that Cardinal
Manning or the Booths were ever informed of the scheme. All three
were friends of Stead and would hardly be acceptable to the rising
power of Milner. Cardinal Manning died in 1892. As for "General"
Booth and his son, they were busily engaged in directing the Salvation
Army from 1878 to 1929 and played no discernible role in the history of
the Group.

Of the others who were mentioned, Brett, Grey, and Balfour can
safely be regarded as members of the society, Brett because of the
documentary evidence and the other two because of their lifelong
cooperation with and assistance to Milner and the other members of
the Group.

Brett, who succeeded his father as Viscount Esher in 1899, is one of
the most influential and one of the least-known men in British politics
in the last two generations. His importance could be judged better by
the positions he refused than by those he held during his long life
(1852-1930). Educated at Eton and Cambridge, he was a lifelong and
intimate friend of Arthur Balfour, Albert Grey, Lord Rosebery, and
Alfred Lyttelton. He was private secretary to the Marquess of
Hartington (Duke of Devonshire) in 1878-1885 and a Liberal M.P. in
1880-1885. In the last year he was defeated in an attempt to capture
the seat for Plymouth, and retired from public life to his country house
near Windsor at the advanced age of thirty-three years. That he
emerged from this retirement a decade later may well be attributed to
his membership in the Rhodes secret society. He met Stead while still in
public life and by virtue of his confidential position with the future
Duke of Devonshire was able to relay to Stead much valuable informa-
tion. These messages were sent over the signature "XIII."

This assistance was so highly esteemed by Stead that he regarded
Brett as an important part of the Pall Mall Gazette organization.
Writing in 1902 of Milner and Brett, Stead spoke of them, without
mentioning their names, as "two friends, now members of the Upper
House, who were thoroughly in sympathy with the gospel according to
the Pall Mall Gazette and who had been as my right and left hands
during my editorship of the paper." In return Stead informed Brett of
Rhodes's secret schemes as early as February 1890 and brought him
into the society when it was organized the following year.

The official positions held by Brett in the period after 1895 were
secretary of the Office of Works (1895-1902), Lieutenant Governor and
Governor of Windsor Castle (1901-1930), member of the Royal Com-

42 / The Anglo-American Establishment

mission on the South African War (1902-1903), permanent member of
the Committee of Imperial Defence (1905-1930), chairman and later
president of the London County Territorial Force Association
(1909-1921), and chief British member of the Temporary Mixed Com-
mission on Disarmament of the League of Nations (1922-1923).
Although some of these posts, especially the one on the Committee of
Imperial Defence, play an important role in the history of the Milner
Group, none of them gives any indication of the significant position
which Esher held in British political life. The same thing could be said
of the positions which he refused, although they, if accepted, would
have made him one of the greatest names in recent British history.
Among the positions which he refused we might mention the following:
Permanent Under Secretary in the Colonial Office (1899), Governor of
Cape Colony (1900), Permanent Under Secretary in the War Office
(1900), Secretary of State for War (1903), Director of The Times
(1908), Viceroy of India (1908), and an earldom (date unknown).
Esher's reasons for refusing these positions were twofold: he wanted to
work behind the scenes rather than in the public view, and his work in
secret was so important and so influential that any public post would
have meant a reduction in his power. When he refused the exalted posi-
tion of viceroy in 1908, he wrote frankly that, with his opportunity of
influencing vital decisions at the center, India for him "would be (it
sounds vain, but it isn't) parochial."" This opportunity for influencing
decisions at the center came from his relationship to the monarchy. For
at least twenty-five years (from 1895 to after 1920) Esher was probably
the most important adviser on political matters to Queen Victoria,
King Edward VII, and King George V. This position arose originally
from his personal friendship with Victoria, established in the period
1885-1887, and was solidified later when, as secretary to the Office of
Works and Lieutenant Governor of Windsor Castle, he was in charge
of the physical properties of all the royal residences. These oppor-
tunities were not neglected. He organized the Diamond Jubilee of
1897, the royal funeral of 1901, and the coronation of the same year. In
the latter case he proved to be indispensable, for in the sixty-four years
without a coronation the precedents had been forgotten. In this way
Esher reached a point where he was the chief unofficial representative
of the King and the "liaison between King and ministers." As an exam-
ple of the former role, we might mention that in 1908, when a
purchaser known only as "X" acquired control of The Times, Esher
visited Lord Northcliffe on behalf of "a very high quarter" to seek
assurance that the policy of the paper would not be changed.
Northcliffe, who was "X," hastened to give the necessary assurances,
according to the official History of The Times. Northcliffe and the
historian of The Times regarded Esher on this occasion as the emissary

The Secret Society of Cecil Rhodes / 43

of King Edward, but we, who know of his relationship with the Rhodes
secret society, are justified in asking if he were not equally the agent of
the Milner Group, since it was as vital to the Group as to the King that
the policy of The Times remain unchanged. As we shall see in a later
chapter, when Northcliffe did adopt a policy contrary to that of the
Group, in the period 1917-1919, the Group broke with him personally
and within three years bought his controlling interest in the paper.

Certain other persons were probably taken into "The Society of the
Elect" in the next few years. Hawksley, Rhodes's lawyer, was one. He
obviously knew about the secret society, since he drew up the wills in
which it was mentioned. This, combined with the fact that he was an
intimate confidant of Rhodes in all the activities of the society and was
made a trustee of the last three wills (1892), makes it probable that he
should be regarded as an initiate.

Likewise it is almost certain that Milner brought in Sir Thomas
Brassey (later Lord Brassey), the wealthy naval enthusiast whose name
is preserved in Brassey's Naval Annual . Brassey was treasurer and most
active figure in the Imperial Federation League during its ten years' ex-
istence. In 1889, as we have mentioned, he hired George Parkin to go
to Australia on behalf of the League to make speeches in support of im-
perial federation. We have already indicated that Milner in 1893 ap-
proached Parkin in behalf of a mysterious and unnamed group of
wealthy imperialists, and, some time later, Milner and Brassey signed a
contract with Parkin to pay him £450 a year for three years to prop-
agandize for imperial federation. Since this project was first broached
to Parkin by Milner alone and since the Imperial Federation League
was, by 1893, in process of dissolution, I think we have the right to
assume that the unnamed group for which Milner was acting was the
Rhodes secret society. If so, Brassey must have been introduced to the
scheme sometime between 1891 and 1893. This last interpretation is
substantiated by the numerous and confidential letters which passed
between Milner and Brassey in the years which followed. Some of these
will be mentioned later. It is worth mentioning here that Brassey was
appointed Governor of Victoria in 1895 and played an important role
in the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1900.

The propaganda work which Parkin did in the period 1893-1895 in
fulfillment of this agreement was part of a movement that was known
at the time as "Seeley's lecturers." This movement was probably all that
ensued from the fifth portion of the "ideal arrangement" — that is, from
the projected college under Professor Seeley.

Another person who was brought into the secret society was Edmund
Garrett, the intimate friend of Stead, Milner, and Rhodes, who was
later used by Milner as a go-between for communications with the
other two. Garrett had been sent to South Africa originally by Stead

44 / The Anglo-American Establishment

while he was still on the Pall Mall Gazette in 1889. He went there for a
second time in 1895 as editor of the Cape Times, the most influential
English-language newspaper in South Africa. This position he un-
doubtedly obtained from Stead and Rhodes. Sir Frederick Whyte, in
his biography of Stead, says that Rhodes was the chief proprietor of the
paper. Sir Edward Cook, however, the biographer of Garrett and a
man who was very close to the Rhodes secret society, says that the
owners of the Cape Times were Frederick York St. Leger and Dr.
Rutherfoord Harris. This is a distinction without much difference,
since Dr. Harris, as we shall see, was nothing more than an agent of
Rhodes.

In South Africa, Garrett was on most intimate personal relationships
with Rhodes. Even when the latter was Prime Minister of Cape
Colony, Garrett used to communicate with him by tossing pebbles at
his bedroom window in the middle of the night. Such a relationship
naturally gave Garrett a prestige in South Africa which he could never
have obtained by his own position or abilities. When High Commis-
sioner Hercules Robinson drew up a proclamation after the Jameson
Raid, he showed it to Garrett before it was issued and cut out a
paragraph at the latter's insistence.

Garrett was also on intimate terms with Milner during his period as
High Commissioner after 1897. In fact, when Rhodes spoke of political
issues in South Africa, he frequently spoke of "I myself, Milner, and
Garrett." We have already quoted an occasion on which he used this
expression to Stead in 1900. Milner 's relationship with Garrett can be
gathered from a letter which he wrote to Garrett in 1899, after Garrett
had to leave South Africa to go to a sanatorium in Germany: "It is no
use protesting against the decrees of fate, nor do I want to say too much
on what Rhodes calls 'the personal.' But this really was a great blow to
me, and I have never quite got over your breakdown and departure,
never quite felt the same man since, either politically or privately.
. . . Dear Friend, I miss you fearfully, always shall miss you. So does
this young country."' 2

I think we are justified in assuming that a man as intimate as this
with Rhodes and Milner, who was used in such confidential and impor-
tant ways by both of them, who knew of the plans for the Johan-
nesburg revolt and the Jameson Raid before they occurred, and who
knew of the Rhodes secret society, was an initiate. That Garrett knew
of the Jameson plot beforehand is recorded by Sir Edward Cook in his
biography. That Garrett knew of the secret society is recorded by Gar-
rett himself in an article which he published in the Contemporary
Review after Rhodes's death in 1902. The words in which Garrett
made this last revelation are of some significance. He spoke of "that
idea of a sort of Jesuit-like Secret Society for the Promotion of the Em-

The Secret Society of Cecil Rhodes / 45

pire, which for long he hugged and which — minus, perhaps, the
secrecy and the Jesuitry — I know to have had a good deal of fascination
for others among our contemporaries not reckoned visionaries by the
world."

We have said that Garrett was used by Milner as an intermediary
with both Rhodes and Stead. The need for such an intermediary with
Rhodes arose from Milner 's feeling that it was politically necessary to
conceal the intimacy of their relationship. As Rhodes told Stead,
speaking of Milner, on 10 April 1900, "I have seen very little of him. He
said to me, 'The less you and I are seen together the better.' Hence, I
never invited him to Groote Schuur." 13

Garrett was also used by Milner as an intermediary with Stead after
the latter became alienated from the initiates because of his opposition
to the Boer War. One example of this is of some significance. In 1902
Milner made a trip to England without seeing Stead. On 12 April of
that year, Garrett, who had seen Milner, wrote the following letter to
Stead: "I love the inner man, Stead, in spite of all differences, and
should love him if he damned me and my policy and acts ten times
more. So does Milner — in the inner court — we agreed when he was
over — only there are temporary limitations and avoidances. . . . He
told me why he thought on the whole he'd better not see you this time.
I quite understood, though I'm not sure whether you would, but I'm
sure you would have liked the way in which, without any prompting at
all, he spoke of his personal feelings for you being unaffected by all
this. Someday let us hope, all this tyranny will be overpast, and we
shall be able to agree again, you and Milner, Cook and I." It is possible
that the necessity for Milner to overrule his personal feelings and the
mention of "the inner court" may be oblique references to the secret
society. In any case, the letter shows the way in which Stead was
quietly pushed aside in that society by its new leader.

Another prominent political figure who may have been an initiate in
the period before 1902 is Lord Rosebery. Like his father-in-law, Lord
Rothschild, who was an initiate, Rosebery was probably not a very ac-
tive member of The Society of the Elect, although for quite different
reasons. Lord Rothschild held aloof because to him the whole project
was incomprehensible and unbusinesslike; Lord Rosebery held aloof
because of his own diffident personality and his bad physical health.
However, he cooperated with the members of the society and was on
such close personal relationships with them that he probably knew of
the secret society. Brett was one of his most intimate associates and in-
troduced him to Milner in 1885. As for Rhodes, Rosebery's official
biographer, the Marquess of Crewe, says that he "both liked and ad-
mired Cecil Rhodes who was often his guest." He made Rhodes a Privy
Councillor, and Rhodes made him a trustee of his will. These things,

46 / The Anglo-American Establishment

and the fact that the initiates generally assumed that Rosebery would
grant their requests, give certain grounds for believing that he was a
member of their society. 14 If he was, he played little role in it after
1900.

Two other men, both fabulously wealthy South Africans, may be
regarded as members of the society and probably initiates. These were
Abe Bailey and Alfred Beit.

Abe Bailey (later Sir Abe, 1864-1940) was the largest landowner in
Rhodesia, a large Transvaal mine-owner, and one of the chief, if not
the chief, financial supporters of the Milner Group in the period up to
1925. These financial contributions still continue, although since 1925
they have undoubtedly been eclipsed by those of Lord Astor. Bailey
was an associate of Rhodes and Alfred Beit, the two most powerful
figures in South Africa, and like them was a close friend of Milner. He
named his son, born in 1900, John Milner Bailey. Like Rhodes and
Beit, he was willing that his money be used by Milner because he sym-
pathized with his aims. As his obituary in The Times expressed it, "In
politics he modeled himself deliberately on Rhodes as his ideal of a
good South African and a devoted Imperialist. ... He had much the
same admiration of Milner and remained to the end a close friend of
'Milner 's young men.' " This last phrase refers to Milner 's Kindergarten
or The Association of Helpers, which will be described in detail later.

Abe Bailey was one of the chief plotters in the Jameson Raid in 1895.
He took over Rhodes's seat in the Cape Parliament in 1902-1907 and
was Chief Whip in the Progressive Party, of which Dr. Jameson was
leader. When the Transvaal obtained self-government in 1907, he
went there and was Whip of the same party in the Legislative Assembly
at Pretoria. After the achievement of the Union of South Africa, in the
creation of which, as we shall see, he played a vital role, he was a
member of the Union Parliament and a loyal supporter of Botha and
Smuts from 1915 to 1924. After his defeat in 1924, he divided his time
between South Africa and London. In England, as The Times said at
his death, he "took a close interest behind the scenes in politics." This
"close interest" was made possible by his membership in the innermost
circle of the Milner Group, as we shall see.

Certain others of Rhodes's chief associates cooperated with Milner in
his designs after Rhodes's death and might well be regarded as
members of Rhodes's society and of the Milner Group. Of these we
might mention Alfred Beit, Dr. Starr Jameson and his assistant R. S.
Holland, J. Rochfort Maguire, and Lewis Loyd Michell.

Alfred Beit (1853-1906) was the business genius who handled all
Rhodes's business affairs and incidentally had most to do with making
the Rhodes fortune. He was a Rhodes Trustee and left much of his own
fortune for public and educational purposes similar to those endowed

The Secret Society of Cecil Rhodes / 47

by Rhodes. This will be discussed later. His biography was written by
George Seymour Fort, a protege of Abe Bailey, who acted as Bailey's
agent on the boards of directors of many corporations, a fact revealed
by Fort himself in a letter to The Times, 13 August 1940.

Leander Starr Jameson (later Sir Starr, 1853-1917) was Rhodes's
doctor, roommate, and closest friend, and had more to do with the
opening up of Rhodesia than any other single man. His famous raid
into the Transvaal with Rhodesian police in 1895 was one of the chief
events leading up to the Boer War. After Rhodes's death, Jameson was
leader of his party in Cape Colony and served as Premier in 1904-1908.
A member of the National Convention of 1908-1909, he was also
director of the British South Africa Company and a Rhodes Trustee. He
was a great admirer of Milner and, even before the death of Rhodes,
had given evidence of a desire to shift his allegiance from Rhodes to
Milner. In 1898 he wrote to his brother: "Rhodes had done absolutely
nothing but go backwards. ... I hate it all and hate the people more
than ever; would clear out by the next boat, but have not pluck enough
to acknowledge myself beaten. . . . Milner is the only really healthy
personality in the whole crowd." 15 This feeling may have been only a
temporary reaction, resulting from the way in which Rhodes received
news of the Jameson Raid, but it is likely that more basic issues were
concerned, since more than two years had elapsed between the raid
and these statements. At any rate, Milner and Jameson were able to
cooperate loyally thereafter. Jameson's biographical sketch in The Dic-
tionary of National Biography was written by Dougal Malcolm of
Milner's Kindergarten.

Reginald Sothern Holland (now Sir Sothern) was private secretary to
Dr. Jameson in 1904 and later for three years permanent head of the
Prime Minister's Department (1905-1908). He was secretary to the
South African Shipping Freights Conference (1905-1906) with
Birchenough and succeeded Birchenough as His Majesty's Trade Com-
missioner to South Africa (1908-1913). During the war he was in
charge of supply of munitions, at first in the War Office and later
(1915) in the Ministry of Munitions. He was also on various commis-
sions in which Milner was interested, such as the Royal Commission on
Paper Supplies (with Birchenough), and ended the war as Controller of
the Cultivation Division of the Food Production Department (which
was seeking to carry out recommendations made by the Milner and
Selborne Committee on Food Production). He became a Rhodes
Trustee in 1932.

Lewis Loyd Michell (later Sir Lewis, 1842-1928) was Rhodes's
banker in South Africa and after his death took over many of his in-
terests. A Minister without Portfolio in Jameson's Cabinet in the Cape
Colony (1904-1905), he was also a director of the British South Africa

48 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Company and a Rhodes Trustee. He published a two-volume Life of
Rhodes in 1910.

J. Rochfort Maguire (1855-1925), Fellcw of All Souls, was an exact
contemporary of Milner's at Oxford (1873-1877) and Rhodes 's most in-
timate friend in college. He worked for Rhodes for the rest of his life.
He obtained the original mining concession (which became the basis of
the British South Africa Company) from Lobengula in 1883, was
Rhodes 's representative in the House of Commons for five years
(1890-1895), 18 and his personal representative in Rhodesia or London
during Rhodes's absences from either place. Director of the British
South Africa Company for twenty-seven years (1898-1925), he was
president for the last two. His sketch in the Dictionary of National
Biography was written by Dougal Malcolm.

Of these six men whom Milner inherited from Rhodes, only one was
young enough to become an active member of the Milner Group. This
was Sothern Holland, born 1876, who did become a member, although
perhaps not of the inner circle. The other five were Milner's own age,
with established positions and power of their own. They all knew
Milner well and cooperated with him. Even if they were initiates, they
played no vital role in the history of the Milner Group after 1905.

As we have indicated, the character of the secret society and its per-
sonnel were changed after 1902. This was the result of the activities of
Lord Milner. The death of Rhodes and the elimination of Stead gave
the organization a much less melodramatic form while making it a
much more potent political instrument. Moreover, as a result of the
personal ascendancy of Milner, the membership of the organization
was drastically changed. Of the initiates or probable initiates whom we
have mentioned, Rothschild, Johnston, Hawksley, Rosebery, Jameson,
Michell, and Maguire played little or no role in the society after 1902.
Beit died in 1906, and Garrett the following year. Of the others, Grey,
Brassey, Esher, and Balfour continued in active cooperation with the
members of the Group. The real circle of initiates in the twentieth cen-
tury, however, would appear to include the following names: Milner,
Abe Bailey, George Parkin, Lord Selborne, Jan Smuts, A. J.
Glazebrook, R. H. Brand (Lord Brand), Philip Kerr (Lord Lothian),
Lionel Curtis, Geoffrey Dawson, H. A. L. Fisher, Edward Grigg,
Leopold Amery, and Lord Astor. Since 1925, when Milner died, others
have undoubtedly been added. This circle, with certain additional
names, we shall call the "inner core" or the "inner circle" of the Milner
Group. The history of these men's activities and the evidence which en-
titles us to attribute them to the circle of initiates will occupy most of
the remainder of this volume.

The changes which Milner made in the Rhodes secret society were
not important. There was no change in goals, and there was very little

The Secret Society of Cecil Rhodes / 49

change in methods. In fact, both of these were modified more by Lord
Lothian and his friends after Milner's death than they were by Milner
after Rhodes 's death.

Rhodes and Milner were aiming at the same goals, and had been for
twenty-five years, in 1902. They differed slightly on how these goals
could be obtained, a difference based on different personalities. To
Rhodes it seemed that the ends could be won by amassing great wealth,
to Milner it seemed that they could be won by quiet propaganda, hard
work, and personal relationships (as he had learned from Toynbee).
Neither rejected the other's methods, and each was willing to use the
other and his methods to achieve their common dream as the occasion
arose. With the death of Rhodes in 1902, Milner obtained control of
Rhodes's money and was able to use it to lubricate the workings of his
propaganda machine. This is exactly as Rhodes had wanted and had
intended. Milner was Rhodes's heir, and both men knew it. Rhodes
himself said before his death, "They tell me I can only live five years. I
don't mean to die. I want to live. But if I go, there is one man — Sir
Alfred Milner. Always trust Milner. You don't know yet what you have
got in him." In 1898, in conversation with Stead, Rhodes said, "You
will support Milner in any measure that he may take short of war. I
make no such limitation. I support Milner absolutely without reserve.
If he says peace, I say peace; if he says war, I say war. Whatever hap-
pens, I say ditto to Milner." 17

The goals which Rhodes and Milner sought and the methods by
which they hoped to achieve them were so similar by 1902 that the two
are almost indistinguishable. Both sought to unite the world, and
above all the English-speaking world, in a federal structure around
Britain. Both felt that this goal could best be achieved by a secret band
of men united to one another by devotion to the common cause and by
personal loyalty to one another. Both felt that this band should pursue
its goal by secret political and economic influence behind the scenes
and by the control of journalistic, educational, and propaganda agen-
cies. Milner's intention to work for this goal, and to use Rhodes's money
and influence to do it, is clearly implied in all his actions (both before
and after 1902), in his correspondence with Rhodes (some of it un-
published), and in letters to Parkin in September 1901 and to Lord
Grey in May 1902. 18

It is very likely that, long before Rhodes died, this plan was discussed
in private conversations of which no record was kept. For example,
three of the Rhodes Trustees under the last will — Grey, Milner, and
Beit — with Lyttelton Gell had dinner at Beit's house and talked over
important matters far into the night of 30 November 1898. It is quite
clear that Rhodes talked over with his associates the ways in which his
ideals would be carried out after his death. He lived constantly under

50 / The Anglo-American Establishment

the fear of death and regarded his whole life as a race in which he must
achieve as much of his purpose as possible before he died. The
biographer of Alfred Beit is quite confident that Rhodes discussed with
Beit a plan by which Rhodes would omit from his will all mention of a
project close to his heart — the Cape to Cairo Railway — leaving this
project to be covered, as it was, by Beit's own will. There can be little
doubt that Rhodes would have discussed a project even closer to his
heart — the worldwide group of Anglo-Saxon sympathizers — with the
trustees of his own will, and, above all, with the one most clearly
devoted to his ideas, Milner.

Milner's Kindergarten,
1897-1910

The appointment as High Commissioner of South Africa was the
turning point in Milner's life. It was obtained, apparently, through his
membership in Rhodes's secret society, through the influence of Stead,
Brett, and Rhodes. Stead, in his book on Rhodes's wills, claims the
chief credit for the nomination, while Brett was with Milner at Wind-
sor when he received the appointment and returned with him to Lon-
don. Sir Harry Johnston, who had already been offered the appoint-
ment for himself by a Foreign Office official, felt that it was Rhodes's
influence which gave it to Milner. In his autobiography he wrote: "At
last the decision was made — Sir Alfred Milner. I suspect very much on
the personal pleadings of Cecil Rhodes, who professed himself
delighted with the choice. . . . The non-selection of myself for a work
that would have greatly interested me, was a disappointment, and I
felt it was due to Rhodes' enmity more than to any other cause."

As High Commissioner, Milner was subordinate to the Secretary of
State for the Colonies, a post held at that time by Joseph Chamberlain,
who was already acquainted with Milner. They had fought Home Rule
together in the election of 1886 and had both been in Egypt in 1889.
They already agreed on most of the important issues of the day, com-
bining, like other members of the Milner Group, advocacy of social
welfare and imperialism. Moreover, both were strong believers in
union with Ireland and a new tariff policy based on imperial
preference. When Chamberlain joined Lord Salisbury's government as
Secretary of State for the Colonies (1895-1903), he was eager to accept
the suggestion that Milner be sent to South Africa. As Colonial
Secretary, Chamberlain did a number of things that won the complete
support of Milner. Among these we might mention the new constitu-
tion for Jamaica (1899), the federation of the Malay States (1895), and
the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia (1900). When
Chamberlain resigned from the Colonial Office in 1903 on the issue of
tariff reform, the post was offered by Balfour to Milner. The latter

51

52 / The Anglo-American Establishment

refused in order to complete the work he had started in South Africa.
When he was ready to retire from his post, he recommended that his
successor be either Alfred Lyttelton or Lord Selborne. The latter ob-
tained the appointment and not only carried Milner's work to comple-
tion but did it with Milner's picked personnel. That personnel regarded
Selborne as second leader to Milner in the Group. '

As High Commissioner, Milner built up a body of assistants known
in history as "Milner's Kindergarten." The following list gives the chief
members of the Kindergarten, their dates of birth and death (where
possible), their undergraduate colleges (with dates), and the dates in
which they were Fellows of All Souls.

Name

Dates

COLLECE

All Souls

Patrick Duncan (later

Sir Patrick

1870-1946

Balliol 1890-1894

Never

Philip Kerr (later Lord

Lothian)

1882-1940

New 1897-1901

Never

Robert Henry Brand

(later Lord Brand)

1878-1963

New 1897-1901

1901-

Lionel Curtis

1872-1955

New 1891-1905

1921-

Geoffrey Dawson (until

1917 Robinson)

1874-1944

Magdalen

1898-1905;

1893-1897

1915-1944

John Buchan (later Lord

Tweedsmuir)

1875-1940

Brasenose
1895-1899

Never

Dougal Orme Malcolm

(later Sir Dougal)

1877-1955

New 1895-1899

1899-1955

William Lionel Hichens

1874-1941

New 1894-1898

Never

Richard Feetham

1874-1965

New 1893-1898

Never

John Dove

1872-1934

New 1891-1895

Never

Basil Williams

1867-1950

New 1886-1891

1924-1925

Lord Basil Blackwood

1870-1917

Balliol 1891-

Never

Hugh A. Wyndham

1877-

New 1896-1900

Never

George V. Fiddes (later

Sir George

1858-1925

Brasenose
1880-1884

Never

John Hanbury- Williams

(later Sir John)

1859-1946

Wellington, N.Z.

Never

Main S. 0. Walrond

1870-

Balliol

Never

Fabian Ware (later Sir

Fabian)

1869-1949

Univ. of Paris

Never

William Flavelle

Monypenny

1866-1912

Balliol
1888-1890

Never

To these eighteen names should be added five others who were pre-

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 53

sent in South Africa between the Boer War and the creation of the
Union and were members of the Milner Group but cannot be listed
under the Kindergarten because they were not members of Milner's
civil service. 2 These five are:

Name

Dates

College

All Souls

Leopold Amery

1873-1955

Balliol

1897-1911,

1892-1896

1938-

Edward Grigg (later

Lord Altrincham)

1879-1955

New 1898-1902

Never

H. A. L. Fisher

1865-1940

New 1884-1888

Never

Edward F. L. Wood

(later Lord Irwin and

Lord Halifax)

1881-1959

Christ Church
1899-1903

1903-1910

Basil K. Long

1878-1944

Brasenose
1897-1901

Never

Of these twenty-three names, eleven were from New College. Seven
were members of All Souls, six as Fellows. These six had held their
fellowships by 1947 an aggregate of one hundred and sixty-nine years,
or an average of over twenty-eight years each. Of the twenty-three,
nine were in the group which founded, edited, and wrote The Round
Table in the period after 1910, five were in close personal contact with
Lloyd George (two in succession as private secretaries) in the period
1916-1922, and seven were in the group which controlled and edited
The Times after 1912.

Eleven of these twenty-three men, plus others whom we have men-
tioned, formed the central core of the Milner Group as it has existed
from 1910 to the present. These others will be discussed in their proper
place. At this point we should take a rapid glance at the biographies of
some of the others.

Two members of the Kindergarten, Patrick Duncan and Richard
Feetham, stayed in South Africa after the achievement of the Union in
1910. Both remained important members of the Milner Group and, as
a result of this membership, rose to high positions in their adopted
country. Patrick Duncan had been Milner's assistant on the Board of
Internal Revenue from 1894 to 1897 and was taken with him to South
Africa as private secretary. He was Treasurer of the Transvaal in 1901,
Colonial Secretary of the Transvaal in 1903-1906, and Acting
Lieutenant Governor in 1906. He remained in South Africa as a
lieutenant to Jan Smuts, becoming an advocate of the Supreme Court
there, a member of the South African Parliament, Minister of Interior,
Public Health, and Education (1921-1924), Minister of Mines
(1933-1936), and finally Governor-General of South Africa

54 / The Anglo-American Establishment

(1936-1946). He frequently returned to England to confer with the
Group (in September 1932, for example, at Lord Lothian's country
house, Blickling).

Richard Feetham was made Deputy Town Clerk and later Town
Clerk of Johannesburg (1902-1905). He was legal adviser to Lord
Selborne, the High Commissioner, in 1907 and a member of the
Legislative Council of the Transvaal later (1907-1910). He was chair-
man of the Committee on Decentralization of Powers in India in
1918-1919; a King's Counsel in Transvaal (1919-1923); a judge of the
Supreme Court of South Africa (1923-1930); chairman of the Irish
Boundary Commission (1924-1925); chairman of the Local Govern-
ment Commission in Kenya Colony (of which Edward Grigg was
Governor) in 1926; adviser to the Shanghai Municipal Council
(1930-1931); chairman of the Transvaal Asiatic Land Tenure Commis-
sion (1930-1935); Vice-Chancellor of the University of Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg (1938); and has been a judge of the Supreme Court of
South Africa since 1939. Most of these positions, as we shall see, came
to him as a member of the Milner Group.

Hugh A. Wyndham also remained in South Africa after 1910 and
was a member of the Union Parliament for ten years (1910-1920). He
had previously been secretary to Milner. In spite of the prominence of
his family and his own position as heir presumptive to the third Baron
Leconfield, it is difficult to obtain any adequate information about
him. His biography in Who's Who does not mention his experiences in
South Africa or his other connections with the Milner Group. This is
obviously the result of a deliberate policy, since editions of Who's Who
of thirty-five years ago do mention the South African connection.
Wyndham wrote Problems of Imperial Trusteeship (1933); Britain and
the World; and the chapter on "The Formation of the Union of South
Africa, 1901-1910" in volume VIII of the Cambridge History of the
British Empire (1936). He was, like all the members of the Milner
Group, a member of the Royal Institute of International Affairs, wrote
many book reviews for its Journal, and at the outbreak of war in 1939
became the usual presiding officer at its meetings (in the absence of
Lord Astor). When publication of the Journal was resumed after the
war, he became chairman of its editorial board, a position he still
holds. Married to Maude Lyttelton, daughter of Viscount Cobham, he
is also a brother-in-law of Sir Ivor Maxse (the brother of Lady Milner)
and a nephew of Lord Rosebery.

Dougal Malcolm (Sir Dougal since 1938), a grandson of Lord
Charles Wellesley, joined the Colonial Office in 1900 and served there
under Chamberlain and Alfred Lyttelton for several years. In 1905 he
went to South Africa as private secretary to Lord Selborne and re-
mained there until Union was achieved. He was secretary to Lord

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 55

Grey, Governor-General of Canada, during the last year of his tenure
(1910-1911); an official of the British Treasury for a year; and, in 1913,
became a director of the British South Africa Company (president since
1938). He is also vice-president of the British North Borneo Company,
of which his brother-in-law, General Sir Neill Malcolm, is president. 3
Sir Dougal wrote the biographies of Otto Beit, of Dr. Jameson, and of
J. Rochford Maguire for the Dictionary of National Biography.

William Lionel Hichens (1874-1940), on graduating from New Col-
lege, served briefly as a cyclist messenger in the Boer War and then
joined the Egyptian Ministry of Finance (1900). After only nine
months* service, he was shifted by Milner to South Africa to join the
Kindergarten as Treasurer of Johannesburg. He at once went to
England to float a loan, and on his return (in 1902) was made Colonial
Treasurer of the Transvaal and Treasurer of the Intercolonial Council.
Later he added to his responsibilities the role of Acting Commissioner
of Railways. In 1907 he went to India as a member of the Royal Com-
mission on Decentralization, following this with a stint as chairman of
the Board of Inquiry into Public Service in Southern Rhodesia (1909).
In 1910 he went into private business, becoming chairman of the board
of a great steel firm, Cammell Laird and Company, but continued as a
member of the Milner Group. In 1915, Lloyd George sent Hichens and
Brand to organize the munitions industry of Canada. They set up the
Imperial Munitions Board of Canada, on which Joseph Flavelle (Sir
Joseph after 1917) was made chairman, Charles B. Gordon (Sir Charles
after 1917) vice-chairman, and Brand a member. In later years
Hichens was a prominent businessman, one of the great steel masters of
England, director of the Commonwealth Trust Company (which sent
John Dove to India in 1918), of the London Northwestern Railway and
its successor, the London, Midlands and Scottish. He was a member of
the Executive Committee of the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust for
over twenty years (1919-1940), which may help to explain the extra-
ordinary generosity of the Carnegie Foundation toward the Royal In-
stitute of International Affairs (of which Hichens was a member). He
was an enthusiastic supporter of adult education programs and spent
years of effort on Birkbeck College, the graduate evening school of the
University of London. He was chairman of the board of governors of
this institution from 1927 until his death, by a German bomb, in
December of 1940. From 1929 onwards, like most of the inner circle of
the Milner Group, he lived close to Oxford (at North Aston). He mar-
ried Hermione Lyttelton, daughter of Sir Neville Lyttelton, niece of
Viscount Cobham, and cousin of the present Oliver Lyttelton.

George Vandeleur Fiddes (Sir George after 1912) had been private
secretary to the Earl of Onslow, father of Lady Halifax, before he was
secretary to Milner in South Africa (1897-1900). Later he was political

56 / The Anglo-American Estabushment

secretary to the Commander-in-Chief in South Africa (1900), secretary
to the Transvaal administration (1900-1902), Assistant Under
Secretary of State for the Colonies (1909-1916), and Permanent Under
Secretary for the Colonies (1916-1921).

John Hanbury-Williams (Sir John after 1908) had been in the
regular army for nineteen years, chiefly as aide to various colonial ad-
ministrators, when he was assigned to Milner as military secretary in
1897. After three years of that, he went to London as secretary to the
Secretary of State for War (St. John Brodrick, 1900-1903), and to
Canada as secretary and military secretary to the Governor-General,
Earl Grey (1904-1909). Then he was brigadier general in charge of ad-
ministration in Scotland (1909-1914) and on the General Staff (1914),
Chief of the British Military Mission to Russia (1914-1917), in charge of
the British Prisoners of War Department at The Hague (1917-1918)
and in Switzerland (1918), and ended his career in a blaze of glory as a
major general, marshal of the diplomatic corps (1920-1934), and extra
equerry to three Kings of England (1934-1946).

John Buchan was not a member of the inner core of the Milner
Group, but was close to it and was rewarded in 1935 by being raised to
a barony as Lord Tweedsmuir and sent to Canada as Governor-
General. He is important because he is (with Lionel Curtis) one of the
few members of the inner circles of the Milner Group who have written
about it in published work. In his autobiography, Pilgrim's Way (Bos-
ton, 1940), he gives a brief outline of the personnel of the Kindergarten
and their subsequent achievements, and a brilliant analysis of Milner
himself. He wrote:

He (Milner) had received — chiefly from Arnold Toynbee — an inspiration
which centered all his interests on the service of the state. He had the in-
stincts of a radical reformer joined to a close-textured intellect which re-
formers rarely possess. He had a vision of the Good Life spread in a wide
commonalty; and when his imagination apprehended the Empire, his
field of vision was marvellously enlarged. So at the outset of his career he
dedicated himself to a cause, putting things like leisure, domestic happi-
ness, and money-making behind him. In Bacon's phrase he espoused the
State. On the intellectual side he found that which wholly satisfied him in
the problems of administration, when he confronted them as Goschen's
secretary, and in Egypt, and at Somerset House. He had a mind re-
markable both for its scope and its mastery over details — the most power-
ful administrative intelligence, I think, which Britain has produced in our
day. If I may compare him with others, he was as infallible as Cromer in
detecting the center of gravity in a situation, as brilliant as Alfred Beit in
bringing order out of tangled finances, and he had Curzon's power of
keeping a big organization steadily at work. He was no fanatic — his in-
telligence was too supreme for that — but in the noblest sense of the word,
he was an enthusiast. He narrowed his interests of set purpose, and this

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 57

absorption meant a certain rigidity. He had cut himself off from some of
the emollients of life. Consequently, the perfect administrator was a less
perfect diplomatist. . . [Later, Buchan adds,] I was brought into close
touch with a great character. Milner was the most selfless man I have ever
known. He thought of his work and his cause, much of his colleagues,
never of himself. He simply was not interested in what attracts common
ambition. He could not be bribed, for there was nothing on the globe
wherewith to bribe him; or deterred by personal criticism, for he cared
not at all for fame; and it would have been as easy to bully the solar
system, since he did not know the meaning of fear.

The effect Milner had on Buchan was shared by the other members
of the Kindergarten and provided that spiritual bond which animated
the Milner Group. This spirit, found in Toynbee, in Goschen, in
Milner, and later in Lionel Curtis, was the motivating force of the
Milner Group until after 1922. Indeed, much of what Buchan says here
about Milner could be applied with slight change to Lionel Curtis, and
Curtis, as we shall see, was the motivating force of the Milner Group
from 1910 to 1922. After 1922, as the influence of Lord Lothian, Lord
Astor, and Lord Brand increased and that of Milner declined, the spirit
of the Group became somewhat tarnished but not completely lost.

Buchan went to Brasenose College, but, as he says himself, "I lived a
good deal at Balliol and my closest friends were of that college." He
mentions as his closest friends Hilaire Belloc, F. E. Smith (the future
Lord Birkenhead), John Simon, Leo Amery, T. A. Nelson, Arthur
Salter, Bron Lucas, Edward Wood (the future Lord Halifax), and Ray-
mond Asquith. Of this list, five were future Fellows of All Souls, and
four of these were important members of the Milner Group.

Buchan went to South Africa in 1901, on Milner's personal invita-
tion, to be his private secretary, but stayed only two years. Placed in
charge of resettlement of displaced Boers and agricultural reform (both
close to Milner's heart), he left in 1903 to take an important position in
the administration of Egypt. This appointment was mysteriously can-
celed after his return to England because, according to Buchan, he was
too young for the task. It is more than likely that Milner, who had ob-
tained the appointment for him, changed his mind because of Buchan's
rapidly declining enthusiasm for imperial federation. This was a sub-
ject on which Milner and other members of his Group were adamant
for many years. By 1915 most members of the Group began to believe
that federation was impossible, and, as a compromise, took what we
know now as the Commonwealth of Nations — that is, a group of na-
tions joined together by common ideals and allegiances rather than by
fixed political organization. Lionel Curtis remains to this day a
fanatical believer in federation, and some of the decline in his influence
after 1922 may be attributed to inability to obtain federation in the

58 / The Anglo-American Establishment

face of world — and above all Dominion — opposition. The present
Commonwealth is in reality the compromises worked out when the
details of the Milner Group clashed with the reality of political facts.

As a result of Buchan's failure to obtain the appointment of Egypt,
he continued to practice law in London for three years, finally aban-
doning it to become a partner in the publishing firm of his old
classmate Thomas A. Nelson (1906-1916). In 1907 he married Susan
Grosvenor, whose family (Dukes of Westminister) was allied, as we
have seen, to the Wyndhams, Cavendishes, Lytteltons, and Primroses
(Earls of Rosebery and Lords Dalmeny). As a result of this family con-
nection, Buchan wrote a memoir on Lord Rosebery for Proceedings of
the British Academy in 1930 and a book on the Grosvenor twins, who
were killed in the war.

During the war, Buchan was a correspondent for The Times, wrote
Nelson's History of the Great War in twenty-four volumes (1915-1919),
was the military intelligence in France (1916-1917), and finally was
Director of Information for the War Office (1917-1918). During this
period and later, he was a prolific writer of travel, historical, and
adventure stories, becoming eventually, by such works as Greenman-
tle, The Three Hostages, and The Thirty-nine Steps, the most famous
writer of adventure stories in Britain. His connection with South Africa
gained him the post of official historian of the South African forces in
France. He was a close friend of Lord Haldane and Lord Rosebery,
both of whom can be regarded as members of the Milner Group. Of
Haldane, Buchan wrote: "What chiefly attracted me to him was his
loyalty to Milner. Milner thought him the ablest man in public life,
abler even than Arthur Balfour, and alone of his former Liberal allies
Haldane stood by him on every count." Haldane, with Rosebery, As-
quith, and Edward Grey, had formed the Liberal League to support
liberal imperialism, with which Milner was closely associated.

Buchan was representative of the Scottish universities in the House of
Commons for eight years (1927-1935), Lord High Commissioner for
the Church of Scotland in 1933-1934, president of the Scottish His-
torical Society (1929-1933), and Chancellor of Edinburgh University,
before he obtained his last post, Governor-General of Canada
(1935-1940).

Basil Williams graduated from New College in 1891 and almost im-
mediately became clerk in the House of Commons, holding this post for
nine years before he went soldiering in the Boer War. He became
Secretary of the Transvaal Education Department, wrote Volume IV
of The Times History of the South African War, and was The Times
special correspondent at the South African Convention of 1908-1919,
which made the Union. A major on the General Staff in 1918-1909, he
was later Ford Lecturer at Oxford (in 1921), Professor of History at

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 59

McGill (1921-1925), and Professor of History at Edinburgh
(1925-1937). He wrote the very revealing article on Milner in the Dic-
tionary of National Biography and numerous other works, including
Cecil Rhodes (1921), The British Empire (for the Home University
Library, 1928), Volume XI of the Oxford History of England (The
Whig Supremacy, 1714-1760), Botha, Smuts, and South Africa (1946),
and edited The Makers of the Nineteenth Century (1915-1928).

Lord Basil Blackwood, son and heir of Lord Dufferin, went to
Balliol in 1891 but never graduated, being an adventurer of the first
order. Taken to South Africa by Milner, he was employed in the Judge
Advocate's Department for a year (1900-1901), then was Assistant Co-
lonial Secretary of Orange River Colony for six years (1901-1907). He
became Colonial Secretary of Barbados in 1907 and Assistant Secretary
of the Land Development Commission in England in 1910. He would
have been an important member of the Milner Group but was killed in
France in 1917.

Of the major members of the Kindergarten, Robert H. Brand (since
1946 Baron Brand) stands close to the top. His father was second Vis-
count Brand, twenty-fourth Baron Dacre (created 1307), son of a
Speaker of the House of Commons (1872-1884), while his mother was
Susan Cavendish, daughter of Lord George Cavendish, and niece of
the seventh Duke of Devonshire. His father, as Governor of New South
Wales in 1895-1899, was one of the original instigators of the federa-
tion of the Australian Colonies, which came into effect in 1900. His
older brother, the third Viscount Hampden, was a lord-in-waiting to
the King (1924-1936), while another brother, Admiral Sir Hubert
Brand, was extra equerry to the King (1922) and principal naval aide
to the King (1931-1932). His nephew, Freeman Freeman-Thomas
(Baron Willingdon after 1910; Marquess of Willingdon after 1936), in
1892 married the daughter of Lord Brassey, and became Governor-
General of Canada (1926-1931) and Viceroy of India (1931-1936).

Brand, who has been a Fellow of All Souls since 1901, is chiefly
responsible for the Astor influence in the Milner Group. He went to
South Africa in 1902 and was made secretary of the Intercolonial
Council of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony and secretary of the
Railway Committee of the Central South African Railways, with
Philip Kerr (the future Lord Lothian) as assistant secretary on both
organizations. He was secretary to the Transvaal Delegation at the
South African National Convention (1908-1909) and at once wrote a
deliberately naive work published by Oxford University Press in 1909
with the title The Union of South Africa. In this work there is no men-
tion of the Kindergarten, and where it is necessary to speak of its work,
this is done as if it were performed by persons unknown to the writer.
He says, for example (page 40): "The Transvaal Delegation alone was

60 / The Anglo-American Establishment

assisted throughout the convention by a staff of legal advisers and ex-
perts," and thus dismisses the Kindergarten's essential work. His own
work is passed over in silence, and at the front of the volume is placed a
quotation in Dutch from President Sir John Brand of the Orange River
Colony, possibly to mislead the ordinary reader into believing that
there was a family connection between the South African politician
and the author of the book.

Brand's role in the Milner Group after 1910 is too great to be covered
adequately here. Suffice it to say that he was regarded as the economist
of the Round Table Group and became a partner and managing direc-
tor of Lazard Brothers and Company, a director of Lloyd's Bank, and a
director of The Times, retiring from these positions in 1944 and 1945.
During the First World War, he was a member of the Imperial Muni-
tions Board of Canada (1915-1918) and deputy chairman of the British
Mission in Washington (1917-1918). While in Washington, he married
Nancy Astor's sister, daughter of Chiswell Dabney Langhorne of
Viginia. It was this connection which gave him his entree to Cliveden
in the period when that name became notorious.

Brand was one of the important figures in international finance in
the period after 1918. At the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 he was
financial adviser to Lord Robert Cecil, chairman of the Supreme
Economic Council. He was later vice-president of the Brussels Con-
ference (1920) and financial representative for South Africa at the
Genoa Conference (1922). He was a member of the committee of ex-
perts on stabilization of the German mark in 1923, the committee
which paved the way for the Dawes Plan. After an extended period in
private business, he was head of the British Food Mission to
Washington (1941-1944), chairman of the British Supply Council in
North America (1942-1945, 1946), and His Majesty's Treasury
Representative in Washington (1944-1946). In this last capacity he had
much to do with negotiating the enormous American loan to Britain for
postwar reconstruction. During the years 1942-1944, Brand put in his
own place as managing director of Lazard Brothers his nephew,
Thomas Henry Brand, son of Viscount Hampden, and, when Brand
left Lazard in 1944, he brought the same nephew to Washington as
chief executive officer on the British side of the Combined Production
and Resources Board, and later (1945) as chairman of the official Com-
mittee on Supplies for Liberated Areas. In all of his activities Brand has
remained one of the most central figures in the core of the Milner
Group.

Just as important as Brand was his intimate friend Philip Kerr (later
Lord Lothian), whom we have already seen as Brand's assistant in
South Africa. Kerr, grandson, through his mother, of the fourteenth
Duke of Norfolk, originally went to South Africa as private secretary to

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 61

a friend of his father's, Sir Arthur Lawley, Lieutenant Governor of the
Transvaal (1902). Kerr was Brand's assistant on the Intercolonial
Council and on the Committee of the Central South African Railways
(1905-1908). Later, as secretary to the Transvaal Indigency Commis-
sion (1907-1908), he wrote a report on the position of poor white
laborers in a colored country which was so valuable that it was
republished by the Union government twenty years later.

From 1908 on, Kerr was, as we shall see, one of the chief organizers
of publicity in favor of the South African Union. He was secretary to
the Round Table Group in London and editor of The Round Table
from 1910 tol916, leaving the post to become secretary to Lloyd
George (1916-1922), manager of the Daily Chronicle (1921), and
secretary to the Rhodes Trust (1925-1939). He obtained several govern-
mental offices after the death of his cousin, the tenth Marquess of
Lothian, in 1930, gave him a title, 28,000 acres of land, and a seat in
the House of Lords. He was Chancellor to the Duchy of Lancaster
(1931), Parliamentary Under Secretary to the India Office
(1931-1932), a member of the first and second Round Table Con-
ferences on India, and chairman of the Indian Franchise Committee,
before he finished his life as Ambassador to the United States
(1939-1940). In 1923 he and Lionel Curtis published a book called The
Prevention of War, consisting of lectures which they had previously
given at Williams College. After his death, Curtis edited a collection of
American Speeches of Lord Lothian, with an introduction by Lord
Halifax and a biographical sketch by Edward Grigg (reprinted from
The Round Table). This was published, as might be expected, by
Chatham House.

On his death, Lord Lothian left his ancestral estate, Newbattle Ab-
bey in Midlothian, as a residential college for adult education in
Scotland, and left his Tudor country house, Blickling (frequent
assembly place of the Milner Group), as a national monument. He
never married and gave up his Roman Catholic faith for Christian
Science in the course of an almost fatal illness in 1914.

Geoffrey Dawson (1874-1944), who changed his name from Robin-
son in 1917, was also one of the innermost members of the Milner
Group. A member of the Colonial Office under Chamberlain
(1898-1901), he became for five years private secretary to Milner in
South Africa (1901-1905) and then was made South African correspon-
dent of The Times and editor of the Johannesburg Star in the critical
period of the formation of the Union (1905-1910). Always a member of
the Round Table Group and the Milner Group, Dawson added to these
the offices of editor of The Times (1912-1919, 1922-1941) and secretary
to the Rhodes Trustees (1921-1922). During the period in which
Dawson was not editor of The Times, he was well provided for by the

62 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Milner Group, being made estates bursar of All Souls, a director of
Consolidated Gold Fields, Ltd., and of Trust Houses, Ltd. (both
Rhodes concerns), as well as being secretary to the Rhodes Trust. He
married in 1919 the daughter of Sir Arthur Lawley (later sixth Baron
Wenlock), Kerr's old chief in the Transvaal. Sir Arthur, who had
started his career as private secretary to his uncle, the Duke of
Westminster, in 1892, ended it as Governor of Madras (1906-1911).

Dawson was probably as close to Milner personally as any member
of the Kindergarten, although Amery must be regarded as Milner's
political heir. The Times' obituary of Dawson says: "To none was
Milner's heart more wholly given than to Dawson; the sympathy be-
tween the older and the younger man was almost that of father and
son, and it lasted unchanged until Milner's death." As editor of The
Times, Dawson was one of the most influential figures in England. He
used that influence in the directions decided by the Group. This was to
be seen, in later years, in the tremendous role which he played in the
affairs of India and, above all, in the appeasement policy. In 1929 he
visited his "long-standing friend" Lord Halifax, then Viceroy of India,
and subsequently wrote most of The Times editorials on India in the
fight which preceded the Government of India Act of 1935. In 1937 he
wrote The Times articles which inaugurated the last stage of appease-
ment, and personally guided The Times support of that policy. After
his retirement from the chair of editor of The Times in 1941, he served
for the last three years of his life as editor of The Round Table.

William Flavelle Monypenny was assistant editor of The Titnes
(1894-1899) before he went to South Africa to become editor of the
Johannesburg Star. He left this position at the outbreak of the Boer
War, since the publication of a pro-British paper was not
possible during the hostilities. After a short period as a lieutenant in the
Imperial Light Horse (1899-1900), Monypenny was made Director of
Civil Supplies under Milner (1900-1902) and then resumed his post as
editor of the Star. In 1903 he resigned in protest against Milner's policy
of importing Chinese laborers and walked across Africa from the Cape
to Egypt. Resuming his position on The Times (1903-1908), he became
a director of the firm for the last four years of his life (1908-1912).
About this time Lord Rowton, who had been Disraeli's private
secretary, left his papers to The Times to be used for a Life of Disraeli.
The task was begun by Monypenny, but he finished only the first two
volumes of the six-volume work. The last four volumes were written by
George E. Buckle, editor of The Times (1884-1912), Fellow of All Souls
(1877-1885), and a contemporary of Milner's at Oxford (1872-1876).

It is perhaps worth noting that when Monypenny resigned from the
Johannesburg Star he was replaced as editor by William Basil
Worsfold, who held the post for two years, being replaced, as we have

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 63

said, by Geoffrey Dawson. In the years 1906-1913 Worsfold published
a three-volume study of Milner's accomplishments in South Africa.
This contains the most valuable account in existence of the work of the
Kindergarten. 4

Fabian Ware (Sir Fabian since 1922), who had been a reporter on
The Morning Post (1899-1901), was Assistant Director and Director of
Education in the Transvaal (1901-1905) and Director of Education in
the Orange River Colony (1903), as well as a member of the Transvaal
Legislative Council (1903-1905). He was editor of The Morning Post in
1905-1911 and then became special commissioner to the board of the
Rio Tinto Company, on which Milner was director. During the First
World War he rose to the rank of major general. Since then he has been
permanent vice-chairman of the Imperial War Graves Commission. A
book which he wrote in 1937, The Immortal Heritage, The Work of
the Imperial War Graves Commission, was made the occasion of an
article on this subject in The Round Table. Sir Fabian was a member of
the Imperial Committee on Economic Consultation and Cooperation
in 1933 and was a director-general in the War Office in 1939-1944.

Main Swete Osmond Walrond was in the Ministry of Finance in
Egypt (1894-1897) before he became Milner's private secretary for the
whole period of his High Commissionership (1897-1905). He was then
appointed District Commissioner in Cyprus but did not take the post.
In 1917-1919 he was in the Arab Bureau in Cairo under the High Com-
missioner and acted as an unofficial, but important, adviser to Milner's
mission to Egypt in 1919-1921. This mission led to Egyptian in-
dependence from Britain.

Lionel Curtis is one of the most important members of the Milner
Group, or, as a member of the Group expressed it to me, he is the jons
et origo. It may sound extravagant as a statement, but a powerful
defense could be made of the claim that what Curtis thinks should be
done to the British Empire is what happens a generation later. I shall
give here only two recent examples of this. In 1911 Curtis decided that
the name of His Majesty's Dominions must be changed from "British
Empire" to "Commonwealth of Nations." This was done officially in
1948. Again, about 1911 Curtis decided that India must be given com-
plete self-government as rapidly as conditions permitted. This was car-
ried out in 1947. As we shall see, these are not merely coincidental
events, for Curtis, working behind the scenes, has been one of the chief
architects of the present Commonwealth. It is not easy to discern the
places where he has passed, and no adequate biographical sketch can
be put on paper here. Indeed, much of the rest of this volume will be a
contribution to the biography of Lionel Curtis. Burning with an un-
quenchable ardor, which some might call fanatical, he has devoted his
life to his dominant idea, that the finer things of life — liberty,

64 / The Anglo-American Establishment

democracy, toleration, etc.— could be preserved only within an in-
tegrated world political system, and that this political system could be
constructed about Great Britain, but only if Britain adopted toward
her Dominions, her colonies, and the rest of the world a policy of
generosity, of trust, and of developing freedom. Curtis was both a
fanatic and an idealist. But he was not merely "a man in a hurry." He
had a fairly clear picture of what he wanted. He did not believe that
complete and immediate freedom and democracy could be given to the
various parts of the imperial system, but felt that they could only be ex-
tended to these parts in accordance with their ability to develop to a
level where they were capable of exercising such privileges. When that
level was achieved and those privileges were extended, he felt that they
would not be used to disrupt the integrated world system of which he
dreamed, but to integrate it more fully and in a sounder fashion — a
fashion based on common outlook and common patterns of thought
rather than on the dangerous unity of political subjection, censorship,
or any kind of duress. To Curtis, as to H. G. Wells, man's fate de-
pended on a race between education and disaster. This was similar to
the feeling which animated Rhodes when he established the Rhodes
Scholarships, although Curtis has a much broader and less nationalistic
point of view than Rhodes. Moreover, Curtis believed that people
could be educated for freedom and responsibility by giving them
always a little more freedom, a little more democracy, and a little more
responsibility than they were quite ready to handle. This is a basically
Christian attitude — the belief that if men are trusted they will prove
trustworthy — but it was an attitude on which Curtis was prepared to
risk the existence of the British Empire. It is not yet clear whether Cur-
tis is the creator of the Commonwealth of Nations or merely the
destroyer of the British Empire. The answer will be found in the
behavior of India in the next few years. The Milner Group knew this.
That is why India, since 1913, has been the chief object of their atten-
tions.

These ideas of Curtis are clearly stated in his numerous published
works. The following quotations are taken from The Problem of the
Commonwealth drawn up by the Round Table Group and published
under Curtis's name in 1916:

Responsible government can only be realized for any body of citizens in so
far as they are fit for the exercise of political power. In the Dependencies
the great majority of the citizens are not as yet capable of governing them-
selves and for them the path to freedom is primarily a problem of educa-
tion. . . . The Commonwealth is a typical section of human society in-
cluding every race and level of civilization organized in one state. In this
world commonwealth the function of government is reserved to the
European minority, for the unanswerable reason that for the present this

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 65

portion of its citizens is alone capable of the task — civilized states are
obliged to assume control of backward communities to protect them from
exploitation by private adventurers from Europe. . . . The Common-
wealth cannot, like despotisms, rest content with establishing order
within and between the communities it includes. It must by its nature
prepare these communities first to maintain order within themselves. The
rule of law must be rooted in the habits and wills of the peoples them-
selves. . . . The peoples of India and Egypt, no less than those of the
British Isles and Dominions, must be gradually schooled to the manage-
ment of their national affairs. ... It is not enough that free
communities should submit their relations to the rule of law. Until all
those people control that law the principle by which the commonwealth
exists is unfulfilled. The task of preparing for freedom the races which
cannot as yet govern themselves is the supreme duty of those races who
can. It is the spiritual end for which the Commonwealth exists, and
material order is nothing except a means to it. . . . In India the rule of law
is firmly established. Its maintenance is a trust which rests on the govern-
ment of the Commonwealth until such time as there are Indians enough
able to discharge it. India may contain leaders qualified not only to make
but also to administer laws, but she will not be ripe for self-government
until she contains an electorate qualified to recognize those leaders and
place them in office. . . . For England the change is indeed a great one.
Can she face it? Can she bear to lose her life, as she knows it, to find it in a
Commonwealth, wide as the world itself, a life greater and nobler than
before? Will she fail at this second and last crisis of her fate, as she failed
at the first, like Athens and Prussia, forsaking freedom for power, think-
ing the shadow more real than the light, and esteeming the muckrake
more than the crown?

Four years later, in 1920, Curtis wrote: "The whole effect of the war
has been to bring movements long gathering to a sudden head . . . com-
panionship in arms has fanned . . . long smouldering resentment
against the prescription that Europeans are destined to dominate the
rest of the world. In every part of Asia and Africa it is bursting into
flames. . . . Personally, I regard this challenge to the long unquestioned
claim of the white man to dominate the world as inevitable and
wholesome especially to ourselves." 5

Unfortunately for the world, Curtis, and the Milner Group gener-
ally, had one grave weakness that may prove fatal. Skilled as they were
in political and personal relations, endowed with fortune, education,
and family connections, they were all fantastically ignorant of
economics — even those, like Brand or Hichens, who were regarded
within the Group as its experts on this subject. Brand was a financier,
while Hichens was a businessman — in both cases occupations that
guarantee nothing in the way of economic knowledge or under-
standing.

Curtis was registered as an undergraduate at New College for four-

66 / The Anglo-American Establishment

teen years (1891-1905) because he was too busy to take time to get his
degree. This is undoubtedly also the reason he was admitted to All
Souls so belatedly, since an ordinary fellowship requires as a qualifica-
tion the possession either of a university prize or of a first-class honours
degree. By the time Curtis took his degree he had fought in the Boer
War, been Town Clerk of Johannesburg, and been assistant secretary
for local government in the Transvaal. In 1906 he resigned his official
positions to organize "Closer Union Groups" agitating for a federation
of South Africa. When this work was well started, he became a
member of the Transvaal Legislative Council and wrote the Transvaal
draft of a projected constitution for such a federation. In 1910-1912,
and at various times subsequently, he traveled about the world,
organizing Round Table Groups in the Dominions and India. In 1912
he was chosen Beit Lecturer in Colonial History at Oxford, but gave it
up in 1913 to turn his attention for almost six years to the preparatory
work for the Government of India Act of 1919. He was secretary to the
Irish Conference of 1921 (arranged by General Smuts) and was adviser
on Irish affairs to the Colonial Office for the next three years. In 1919
he was one of the chief — if not the chief, — founders of the Royal In-
stitute of International Affairs, and during the 1920s divided his atten-
tion between this and the League of Nations — in neither case,
however, in a fashion to attract public attention. Undoubtedly his in-
fluence within the Milner Group declined after 1922, the per-
ponderance falling into the hands of Lothian, Brand, and Dawson.
The failure to achieve federation within the Empire was undoubtedly a
blow to his personal feeling and possibly to his prestige within the
Group. Nonetheless, his influence remained great, and still is. In the
1920s he moved to Kidlington, near Oxford, and thus was available for
the Group conferences held at All Souls. His chief published works in-
clude The Problem of the Commonwealth (1915), The Commonwealth
of Nations (1916), Dyarchy (1920), The Prevention of War (1924), the
Capital Question of China (1932), The Commonwealth of God
(1932-1938), and The Protectorates of South Africa (1935).

John Dove (1872-1934) was sent to Milner in 1903 by Sir William
Anson, Warden of All Souls. He was assistant Town Clerk and later
Clerk of Johannesburg (1903-1907) and then chairman of the
Transvaal Land Settlement Board (1907-1909). After a trip to Australia
and India with Lionel Curtis, for the purpose of organizing Round
Table Groups, he returned to London in 1911 and lived with Brand
and Kerr in Cumberland Mansions. He went to South Africa with Earl
Grey in 1912 to unveil the Rhodes Memorial, and served in the First
World War with military intelligence in France. In 1918 he became a
kind of traveling representative of financial houses, probably as a result
of his relationship with Brand. He began this with an extended trip to

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 67

India for the Commonwealth Trust Company in 1918 and in the next
fifteen years made almost annual trips to Europe. Editor of The Round
Table from 1921 to his death in 1934, he displayed an idealistic streak
similar to that found in Curtis but without the same driving spirit
behind it. After his death, Brand published a volume of his letters
(1938). These are chiefly descriptive of foreign scenes, the majority
written to Brand himself.

Leopold Amery was not a member of the Kindergarten but knew all
the members well and was in South Africa, during their period of ser-
vice, as chief correspondent of The Times for the Boer War and the
editor of The Times History of the South African War (which appeared
in seven volumes in the decade 1900-1909). Amery, who was a Fellow
of All Souls for fourteen years early in the century and has been one
again since 1938, is one of the inner core of the Milner Group. He
started his career as private secretary to Leonard H. Courtney, Union-
ist Member of Parliament and Deputy Speaker in Lord Salisbury's se-
cond government. Through this connection, Amery was added to The
Times editorial staff (1899-1909) and would have become editor but
for his decision to go into politics. In this he was not, at first, successful,
losing three contests as a Unionist and tariff reformer in the high tide of
Liberal supremacy (1906-1910). When victory came in 1911, it was a
good one, for Amery held the same seat (for Birmingham) for thirty-
four years. During that time he held more important government posts
than can be mentioned here. These included the following: assistant
secretary of the War Cabinet and Imperial War Council (1917);
secretary to the Secretary of State for War (Milner, 1917-1918);
Parliamentary Under Secretary for Colonies (1919-1921); Parliamen-
tary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty (1921-1922); First Lord
of the Admiralty (1922-1924); Secretary of State for Colonies
(1924-1929) and for Dominion Affairs (1925-1929); Secretary of State
for India and Burma (1940-1945). Amery wrote dozens of volumes,
chiefly on the Empire and imperial trade relations. In 1910 he married
the sister of a fellow Member of Parliament, Florence Greenwood. The
colleague, Hamar Greenwood (Baron Greenwood since 1929 and Vis-
count Greenwood since 1937), was a Liberal M.P. for sixteen years
(1906-1922) and a Conservative M.P. for five (1924-1929), a change in
which Amery undoubtedly played an important role. Lord Greenwood
was secretary of the Overseas Trade Department (1919-1920) and
Chief Secretary for Ireland (1920-1922). In recent years he has been
chairman of the board of directors of one of England's greatest steel
firms (Dorman, Long, and Company), treasurer of the Conservative
Party, and president of the British Iron and Steel Federation
(1938-1939).

Amery can be regarded as Milner's political heir. From the begin-

68 / The Anglo-American Establishment

ning of his own political career in 1906 to the death of Milner in 1925,
he was more closely associated with Milner 's active political life than
any other person. In 1906, when Amery made his first effort to be
elected to Parliament, Milner worked actively in support of his
candidacy. It is probable that this, in spite of Milner's personal
prestige, lost more votes than it gained, for Milner made no effort to
conceal his own highly unorthodox ideas. On 17 December 1906, for
example, he spoke at Wolverhampton as follows: "Not only am I an
Imperialist of the deepest dye — and Imperialism, you know, is out of
fashion — but I actually believe in universal military training. ... I am
a Tariff Reformer and one of a somewhat pronounced type. ... I am
unable to join in the hue and cry against Socialism. That there is an
odious form of Socialism I admit, a Socialism which attacks wealth
simply because it is wealth, and lives on the cultivation of class hatred.
But that is not the whole story; most assuredly not. There is a nobler
Socialism, which so far from springing from envy, hatred, and un-
charitableness, is born of genuine sympathy and a lofty and wise con-
ception of what is meant by national life." These sentiments may not
have won Amery many votes, but they were largely shared by him, and
his associations with Milner became steadily more intimate. In his last
years of public office, Milner was generally assisted by Amery
(1917-1921), and when he died it was Amery who arranged the public
memorial service and controlled the distribution of tickets.

Edward William Mackay Grigg (Sir Edward after 1920, Lord
Altrincham since 1945) is one of the most important members of the
Milner Group. On graduating from New College, he joined the staff of
The Times and remained with it for ten years (1903-1913), except for
an interval during which he went to South Africa. In 1913 he became
joint editor of The Round Table, but eventually left to fight the war in
the Grenadier Guards. In 1919, he went with the Prince of Wales on a
tour of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. After replacing Kerr for
a year or so as secretary to Lloyd George (1921-1922), he was a
Member of Parliament in 1922-1925 and again in 1933-1945. He has
also been Governor of Kenya Colony (1925-1931), parliamentary
secretary to the Ministry of Information (1939-1940), Joint Parliamen-
tary Under Secretary of State for War (1940-1942), and Minister Resi-
dent in the Middle East (1944-1945). He also found time to write many
books, such as The Greatest Experiment in History (1924); Three Par-
ties or Two? (1931), The Faith oj an Englishman (1931), Britain Looks
at Germany (1938), The British Commonwealth (1943), and British
Foreign Policy (1944).

Another visitor to South Africa during the period of the
Kindergarten was H. A. L. Fisher. Fisher, a famous historian in his
own right, can be regarded as one of the founders of the Kindergarten

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 69

and was a member of the Milner Group from at least 1899. The chief
recruiting for the Kindergarten, beyond that done by Milner himself,
was done by Fisher and his close friend Sir William Anson. The rela-
tionships between these two, Goschen, and Milner were quite close (ex-
cept that Milner and Anson were by no means close), and this quartet
had a great deal to do with the formation of the Milner Group and with
giving it a powerful hold on New College and All Souls. Fisher
graduated from New College in 1888 and at once became fellow and
tutor in the same college. These positions were held, with interrup-
tions, until 1912, when Fisher left Oxford to become Vice-Chancellor
of Sheffield University. He returned to New College as Warden for the
last fifteen years of his life (1925-1940). Fisher originally expected to
tutor in philosophy, but his appointment required him to teach history.
His knowledge in this field was scanty, so it was amplified by vacation
reading with A. L. Smith (the future Master of Balliol, an older con-
temporary of Milner's at Balliol, and a member of the Milner Group).
Smith, in addition to teaching Fisher history, also taught him how to
skate and to ride a bicycle and worked with him on the literary remains
of Fisher's brother-in-law, Frederic W. Maitland, the great historian of
the English law. As a result of this last activity, Fisher produced in
1911 a three-volume set of Maitland's Collected Works, and a
biographical sketch of Maitland (1910), while Smith in 1908 published
two lectures and a bibliography on Maitland. Smith's own
biographical sketch in the Dictionary of National Biography was writ-
ten by another member of the Milner Group, Kenneth Norman Bell
(Fellow of All Souls, 1907-1914; Beit Lecturer in Colonial History,
1924-1927; and member of the family that controlled the publishing
house of G. Bell and Sons). His son, Arthur Lionel Foster Smith, was a
Fellow of All Souls under Anson (1904-1908) and later organized and
supervised the educational system of Mesopotamia (1920-1931).

H. A. L. Fisher held many important posts in his career, partly
because of membership in the Milner Group. In 1908, while the
Kindergarten, which he had helped to assemble, was still in South
Africa, he went there on an extended lecture tour; in 1911-1912 he was
Chichele Lecturer in Foreign History; in 1912-1915 he was an impor-
tant member of the Royal Commission on Public Services in India; in
1916-1926 he was a member of the House of Commons, the first half of
the period as a Cabinet member (President of the Board of Education,
1916-1922). He was a delegate to the Assembly of the League of
Nations for three years (1920-1922), governor of the British Broad-
casting Corporation for four (1935-1939), and a Rhodes Trustee for
about fifteen (1925-1940). 6

Fisher's bibliography forms an extensive list of published works.
Besides his Unfinished Biography (1940) and his famous three-volume

70 / The Anglo-American Establishment

History of Europe (1935-1936), it contains many writings on subjects
close to the Milner Group. His Creighton Lecture in 1911 on Political
Unions examines the nature of federalism and other unions and fits in
well with the discussions going on at the time within Round Table
Groups on this subject — discussions in which Fisher played an impor-
tant part. In the section of this lecture dealing with the Union of South
Africa, Fisher was almost as deliberately evasive as Brand had been in
his book on the Union, which appeared two years earlier. He mentions
the preliminary work of the Kindergarten toward union (work in
which he had taken a part himself during his visit to South Africa in
1908) as the work of anonymous persons, but does state that the
resulting constitution for a united South Africa was largely the work of
the Transvaal delegation (which, as we shall see, was one controlled by
the Kindergarten).

Other writings of Fisher's resulting from his work with the Milner
Group are his "Imperial Administration" in Studies in History and
Politics (1920); his An International Experiment, dealing with the
League of Nations (1921); The Common Weal, dealing with the duties
of citizenship (1924); and Our New Religion (1929), dealing with
Christian Science. In connection with this last book, it might be men-
tioned that Christian Science became the religion of the Milner Group
after Milner *s death. Among others, Nancy Astor and Lord Lothian
were ardent supporters of the new belief. Christian Science was part of
the atmosphere of Cliveden.

Fisher's relationship with Milner was quite close and appeared
chiefly in their possession of fellowships in New College, obtained by
the older man in 1878 and by the younger ten years later. In 1901,
when the Kindergarten was formed, the two had been Fellows together
for thirteen years, and in 1925, when Milner died and Fisher became
Warden, they had been Fellows together for thirty-seven years.

There was also a more personal relationship, created in 1899, when
Fisher married Lettice Ilbert. Her father, Sir Courtenay Ilbert
(1841-1924), was a lifelong friend of Anson and an old friend of Milner.
Sir Courtenay, as law member of the Viceroy of India's Council in
1883, had tried in vain to remove from the Indian code "every judicial
disqualification based merely upon race distinctions." Under Lord
Dufferin (Lord Basil Blackwood's father) , he set up the general system
of law and procedure for Burma (1885), and in 1898 he issued what
became the basic codification of Indian law. He was clerk of the House
of Commons from 1902 to 1921. Mrs. H. A. L. Fisher, one of Sir
Courtenay 's five daughters, recalls in The Milner Papers how Alfred
Milner use to romp with the girls when they were children.

Fisher was a very valuable member of the Milner Group because he,
along with Lord Goschen, became the chief means by which the Group

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 71

secured access to the College of All Souls. This access was secured by
the friendship of these two men with Sir William Anson. Anson himself
was a member of the Cecil Bloc rather than the Milner Group. His per-
sonal relations with Milner were not very close, and, indeed, there is
some doubt as to his actual feeling toward Milner. The only comment
about Milner in the published portions of Anson's journal is a rather
acid remark regarding the lack of eloquence in a Milner speech in the
House of Lords against the Parliament Act of 191 1. 7 Nor did Anson see
eye to eye with Milner, or indeed with most members of the Milner
Group, since he was much too conservative. He was, to be sure, a
Liberal Unionist, as most important members of the Group were. He
was also an imperialist and interested in social welfare, but he did not
have the high disregard for systems of economics that is so
characteristic of all members of the Group before 1917. Anson had an
ingrained respect for the economic status quo, and the old Liberal's
suspicion of the intervention by public authority in the economic field.
These tendencies had been strengthened by years of tender attention to
the extensive landed wealth possessed by All Souls. Nonetheless, Anson
became one of the chief architects of the Milner Group and is un-
doubtedly the chief factor in the Group's domination of All Souls since
Anson's death. During his wardenship (1881-1914), Anson was the
most influential figure in All Souls, not merely in its social and intellec-
tual life but also in the management of its fortune and the selection of
its members. In the ordinary expectation of affairs, the former task was
generally left in the hands of the estates bursar, and the latter was
shared with the other Fellows. Anson, however, took the dominant
role in both matters, to such a degree in fact that Bishop Henson
(himself a member of All Souls since 1884), in his Memoir of Anson,
says that the Warden was always able to have his candidate emerge
with the prized fellowship.

In seeking to bestow fellowships at All Souls on those individuals
whom we now regard as the chief members of the Milner Group, An-
son was not conscious that he was dealing with a group at all. The can-
didates who were offering themselves from New College in the period
1897-1907 were of such high ability that they were able to obtain the
election on their own merits. The fact that they came strongly recom-
mended by Fisher served to clinch the matter. They thus did not enter
All Souls as members of the Milner Group — at least not in Anson's
lifetime. After 1914 this was probably done (as in the case of Lionel
Curtis in 1921, Basil Williams in 1924, or Reginald Coupland in 1920),
but not before. Rather, likely young men who went to New College in
the period on either side of the Boer War were marked out by Fisher
and Anson, elected to All Souls, and sent into Milner's Kindergarten on
the basis of merit rather than connections.

72 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Another young man who came to visit in South Africa in 1904 and
1905 was Edward Frederick Lindley Wood, already a Fellow of All
Souls and a future member of the Milner Group. Better known to the
world today as the first Earl of Halifax, he was the son of the second
Viscount Halifax and in every way well qualified to become a member
of the Milner Group. Lord Halifax is a great-grandson of Lord Grey of
the great Reform Bill of 1832, and a grandson of Lord Grey's secretary
and son-in-law, Charles Wood (1800-1885), who helped put the Re-
form Bill through. The same grandfather became, in 1859-1866, the
first Secretary of State for the new India, putting through reforms for
that great empire which were the basis for the later reforms of the
Milner Group in the twentieth century. Lord Halifax is also a grand-
nephew of Lord Durham, whose famous report became the basis for
the federation of Canada in 1867.

As Edward Wood, the future Lord Halifax undoubtedly found his
path into the select company of All Souls smoothed by his own father's
close friendship with Phillimore and with the future Archbishop Lang,
who had been a Fellow for fifteen years when Wood was elected in
1903.

As a newly elected Fellow, Wood went on a world tour, which took
him to South Africa twice (in 1904 and 1905). Each time, he was ac-
companied by his father, Viscount Halifax, who dined with Milner and
was deeply impressed. The Viscount subsequently became Milner's
chief defender in the House of Lords. In 1906, for example, when
Milner was under severe criticism in the Commons for importing
Chinese laborers into South Africa, Lord Halifax introduced and car-
ried in the Upper House a resolution of appreciation for Milner's work.

Edward Wood's subsequent career is one of the most illustrious of
contemporary Englishmen. A Member of Parliament for fifteen years
(1910-1925), he held posts as Parliamentary Under Secretary for the
Colonies (1921-1922), President of the Board of Education (in succes-
sion to H. A. L. Fisher, 1922-1924), and Minister of Agriculture, before
he went to India (as Baron Irwin) to be Viceroy. In this post, as we
shall see, he furthered the plans of the Milner Group for the great sub-
continent (1926-1931), before returning to more brilliant achievements
as president of the Board of Education (1932-1935), Secretary of State
for War (1935), Lord Privy Seal (1935-1937), Lord President of the
Council (1937-1938), Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
(1938-1940), and, finally, Ambassador to Washington (as successor to
Lord Lothian, 1941-1946) . In Washington, as we shall see, he filled the
embassy with members of All Souls College.

There can be little doubt that Lord Halifax owed much of his rise in
public affairs to his membership in the Milner Group. His authorized
biographer, Alan Campbell Johnson, writes in connection with one ap-

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 73

pointment of Halifax's: "It is widely believed that the influence of
Geoffrey Dawson and other members of The Times editorial staff
discovered him as an ideal Viceroy and whispered his name at the
proper time both to the proper authorities in George V's entourage and
at 10 Downing Street." In connection with his appointment as Foreign
Secretary, Johnson says:

Lothian, Geoffrey Dawson, and Brand, who used to congregate at
Cliveden House as the Astors' guests and earned the tide of a "set," to
which, in spite of imaginative left-wing propaganda, they never aspired,
urged Chamberlain at the decisive moment to have the courage of his con-
victions and place Halifax, even though he was a Peer, in the office to
which his experience and record so richly entitled him. They argued
forcibly that to have a Foreign Secretary safely removed from the heat of
the House of Commons battle was just what was required to meet the
delicate international situation.

Another member of this South African group who was not tech-
nically a member of the Kindergarten (because not a member of the
civil service) was Basil Kellett Long. He went from Brasenose to Cape
Town to study law in 1902 and was called to the bar three years later.
In 1908 he was elected to the Cape Parliament, and a year later suc-
ceeded Kerr as editor of the Kindergarten's propagandist journal, The
State (1909-1912). He was a member of the first Parliament of a united
South Africa for three years (1910-1913) and then succeeded Amery as
head of the Dominions Department of The Times. In 1921 he left this
post and the position of foreign editor (held jointly with it in
1920-1921) to return to South Africa as editor of the Cape Times
(1921-1935). He was one of the most important figures in the South
African Institute of International Affairs after its belated foundation.
With the outbreak of war in 1939, he was put in charge of liaison work
between the South African branch and the parent institute in London.

The work of the Kindergarten in South Africa is not so well known as
might be expected. Indeed, until very recently the role played by this
group, because of its own deliberate policy of secrecy, has been largely
concealed. The only good narration of their work is to be found in
Worsfold's The Reconstruction of the New Colonies under Lord
Milner, but Worsfold, writing so early, could not foresee the continued
existence of the Kindergarten as a greater and more influential group.
Lionel Curtis's own account of what the Group did, in his Letter to the
People of India (1917), is very brief and virtually unknown in the
United States or even in England. The more recent standard accounts,
such as that in Volume VIII of the Cambridge History of the British
Empire (1936), give even less than Worsfold. This will not appear sur-
prising when we point out that the chapter in this tome dealing with

74 / The Anglo-American Establishment

"The Formation of the Union, 1901-1910" is written by Hugh A.
Wyndham, a member of the Kindergarten. It is one of the marvels of
modern British scholarship how the Milner Group has been able to
keep control of the writing of history concerned with those fields in
which it has been most active.

Only in very recent years has the role played by the Kindergarten as
part of a larger group been appreciated, and now only by a very few
writers, such as the biographer of Lord Halifax, already mentioned,
and M. S. Green. The latter, a high school teacher in Pretoria, South
Africa, in his brief work on The Making of the Union of South Africa
(1946) gives an account of the Kindergarten which clearly shows his
realization that this was only the early stages of a greater group that
exercised its influence through The Round Table, The Times, the
Royal Institute of International Affairs, and the College of All Souls.

The work of union in South Africa was only part of the much greater
task of imperial union. This was always the ultimate goal of Cecil
Rhodes, of Milner, and of the Kindergarten. Milner wrote in his diary
on 25 January 1904: "My work has been constantly directed to a great
and distant end — the establishment in South Africa of a great and
civilized and progressive community, one from Cape Town to the
Zambesi — independent in the management of its own affairs, but still
remaining, from its own firm desire, a member of the great community
of free nations gathered together under the British flag. That has been
the object of all my efforts. It is my object still." 8 In his great farewell
speech of March 1905, Milner called upon his hearers, and especially
the Kindergarten, to remain loyal to this ultimate goal. He said:

What I pray for hardest is, that those with whom I have worked in a great
struggle and who may attach some weight to my words should remain
faithful, faithful above all in the period of reaction, to the great idea of
Imperial Unity. Shall we ever live to see its fulfillment? Whether we do or
not, whether we succeed or fail, I shall always be steadfast in that faith,
though I should prefer to work quietly and in the background, in the for-
mation of opinion rather than in the exercise of power. . . . When we who
call ourselves Imperialists talk of the British Empire, we think of a group
of states, all independent in their local concerns, but all united for the de-
fense of their own common interests and the development of a common
civilization; united, not in an alliance — for alliances can be made and un-
made, and are never more than nominally lasting— but in a permanent
organic union. Of such a union the dominions as they exist today, are, we
fully admit, only the raw material. Our ideal is still distant but we deny
that it is either visionary or unattainable. . . . The road is long, the ob-
stacles are many, the goal may not be reached in my lifetime — perhaps
not in that of any man in this room. You cannot hasten the slow growth of
a great idea like that by any forcing process. But what you can do is to
keep it steadily in view, to lose no opportunity to work for it, to resist like

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 75

grim death any policy which leads away from it. I know that the service
of that idea requires the rarest combination of qualities, a combination of
ceaseless effort with infinite patience. But then think on the other hand of
the greatness of the reward; the immense privilege of being allowed to
contribute in any way to the fulfillment of one of the noblest conceptions
which has ever dawned on the political imagination of mankind.

For the first couple of years in South Africa the Kindergarten worked
to build up the administrative, judicial, educational, and economic
systems of South Africa. By 1905 they were already working for the
Union. The first steps were the Intercolonial Council, which linked the
Transvaal and Orange River Colony; the Central South African Rail-
way amalgamation; and the customs union. As we have seen, the
Kindergarten controlled the first two of these completely; in addition,
they controlled the administration of Transvaal completely. This was
important, because the gold and diamond mines made this colony the
decisive economic power in South Africa, and control of this power
gave the Kindergarten the leverage with which to compel the other
states to join a union.

In 1906, Curtis, Dawson, Hichens, Brand, and Kerr, with the sup-
port of Feetham and Malcolm, went to Lord Selborne and asked his
permission to work for the Union. They prevailed upon Dr. Starr
Jameson, at that time Premier of Cape Colony, to write to Selborne in
support of the project. When permission was obtained, Curtis resigned
from his post in Johannesburg and, with Kerr's assistance, formed
"Closer Union Societies" as propaganda bodies throughout South
Africa. Dawson, as editor, controlled the Johannesburg Star. The
Times of London was controlled completely, as far as news from South
Africa was concerned, with Monypenny, Amery, Basil Williams, and
Grigg in strategic spots — the last as head of the imperial department of
the paper. Fabian Ware published articles by various members of the
Milner Group in his Morning Post. In South Africa, £5000 was ob-
tained from Abe Bailey to found a monthly paper to further the cause
of union. This paper, The State, was edited by Philip Kerr and B. K.
Long and became the predecessor of The Round Table, also edited by
Kerr and financed by Bailey. Bailey was not only the chief financial
support of the Kindergarten's activities for closer union in South
Africa, but also the first financial contributor to The Round Table in
1910, and to the Royal Institute of International Affairs in 1919. He
contributed to both during his life, and at his death in 1940 gave The
Round Table £1000 a year for an indefinite period. He had given the
Royal Institute £5000 a year in perpetuity in 1928. Like his close
associates Rhodes and Beit, he left part of his immense fortune in the
form of a trust fund to further imperial interests. In Bailey's case, the
fund amounted to £250,000.

76 / The Anglo-American Establishment

As part of the project toward a Union of South Africa, Curtis in 1906
drew up a memorandum on the need for closer union of the South
African territories, basing his arguments chiefly on the need for greater
railway and customs unity. This, with the addition of a section written
by Kerr on railway rates, and a few paragraphs by Selborne, was
issued with the famous Selborne Federation Dispatch of 7 January 1907
and published as an Imperial Blue Book (Cmd. 3564 of 1907). It was
republished, with an introduction by Basil Williams of the
Kindergarten, by Oxford University Press in 1925. The Central Com-
mittee of the Closer Union Societies (which was nothing but the
Kindergarten) wrote a complete and detailed account of the political
institutions of the various areas concerned. This was called The
Government of South Africa and was issued anonymously in five parts,
and revised later in two quarto volumes. A copy was sent to every
delegate to the National Convention in Durban in 1908, along with
another anonymous work (edited by B. K. Long), called The
Framework of Union. This latter work contained copies of the five
chief federal constitutions of the world (United States, Canada, Ger-
many, Switzerland, and Australia). Curtis was also the chief author of
the draft of projected constitution presented by the Transvaal delega-
tion to the National Convention. This draft, with modifications,
became the Constitution of the Union of South Africa in 1910. The
Transvaal delegation, alone of the various delegations, lived together
in one house and had a body of expert advisers; both of these cir-
cumstances were due to the Kindergarten.

After the convention accepted the Union Constitution, it was
necessary to have it accepted by the Imperial Parliament and the
various states of South Africa. In both of these tasks the Kindergarten
played an important role, in England through their control of The
Times and The Morning Post as well as other sources of propaganda,
and in South Africa by the economic pressure of the Transvaal. In
Natal, the only state which submitted the question to a referendum,
the Kindergarten put on an intensive propaganda drive, financed with
money from the Transvaal. Of this struggle in Natal, Brand, with his
usual secrecy on all matters dealing with the Kindergarten, merely
says: "A referendum was therefore taken — contrary to general expecta-
tion, it revealed an overwhelming majority for union, a good testimony
to the sound sense of the people of the colony." 9 Brand, as secretary to
the Transvaal delegation to the Convention, knew more than this!

The same secrecy was maintained in regard to the whole convention.
No record of its proceedings was kept, but, according to Worsfold, its
resolutions were drafted by Brand and Duncan.

Throughout these activities, the Kindergarten received powerful
support from a man who by this time was a member of the Milner

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 77

Group and later gained international fame, chiefly because of this
membership. This was Jan C. Smuts.

Smuts had studied in England, at Cambridge University and the
Middle Temple. By 1895 he was a lawyer in Cape Town. His lack of
success in this profession doubtless had some influence in turning him
into the devious opportunist he soon became, but throughout his op-
portunism he clung to that ideal which he shared with Rhodes and
Milner — the ideal of a united South Africa. All his actions from this
date onward — no matter how much they may seem, viewed super-
ficially, to lead in another direction — were directed toward the end
ultimately achieved: a United South Africa within the British Em-
pire—and, to him almost equally important, a United South Africa in
which he would be the dominant figure. Smuts and Milner differed
chiefly on this last point, for if Milner was "selfless," this was almost the
last word which could be applied to Smuts. Otherwise the two seemed
very similar — similar in their desires for a united South Africa and later
a united British Empire, and extraordinarily similar in their cold
austerity, impersonal intellectualism, and driving discipline (applied
to self even more than to others) . In spite of their similar goals for the
Empire, Smuts and Milner were not close friends. Perhaps such similar
personalities could not be expected to find mutual agreement, but the
divergence probably rests, rather, on the one characteristic in their
personalities where they most obviously differed.

Smuts and Rhodes, on the other hand, got on together very well. As
early as 1895, the unsuccessful Cape Town lawyer was sent by the
great imperialist to Kimberley to speak in his defense. But after the
Jameson Raid, Smuts became one of the most vociferous critics of
Rhodes and the British. These attacks gave Smuts a reputation as an
Anglophobe, which yielded considerable profits immediately. Going to
the Transvaal (where he added to his fame by uncompromising support
of President Kruger), he was raised, at the age of twenty-eight, to the
post of State Attorney (1898). In this position, and later as Colonial
Secretary, he adopted tactics which led steadily to war (forcing the
Uitlanders to pay taxes while denying them the franchise, arresting
Uitlander newspaper editors like Monypenny, etc.). At the Bloemfon-
tein Conference of 1899 between Kruger and Milner, all of Smuts 's ad-
vice to the former was in the direction of concessions to Milner, yet it
was Smuts who drafted the ultimatum of 9 October, which led to the
outbreak of war. During the war he was one of the most famous of Boer
generals, yet, when negotiations for peace began, it was he who drew
up the proposal to accept the British terms without delay. With the
achievement of peace, Smuts refused Milner's invitation to serve in the
Legislative Council of the Transvaal, devoting himself instead to
violent and frequently unfair attacks on Milner and the Kindergarten,

78 / The Anglo-American Establishment

yet as soon as self-government was granted (in 1906) he became Co-
lonial Secretary and Minister of Education and worked in the closest
cooperation with the Kindergarten to obtain Milner's ideal of a united
South Africa.

There is really nothing puzzling or paradoxical in these actions.
From the beginning, Smuts wanted a brilliant career in a united South
Africa within a united British Empire, within, if possible, a united
world. No stage would be too big for this young actor's ambitions, and
these ambitions were not, except for his own personal role, much dif-
ferent from those of Milner or Rhodes. But, as a very intelligent man,
Smuts knew that he could play no role whatever in the world, or in the
British Empire, unless he could first play a role in South Africa. And
that required, in a democratic regime (which he disliked), that he ap-
pear pro-Boer rather than pro-British. Thus Smuts was pro-Boer on all
prominent and nonessential matters but pro-British on all unobtrusive
and essential matters (such as language, secession, defense, etc.).

At the National Convention of 1908-1909, it was Smuts who
dominated the Transvaal delegation and succeeded in pushing through
the projects prepared by the Kindergarten. From this emerged a per-
sonal connection that still exists, and from time onward, as a member
of the Milner Group, Smuts, with undeniable ability, was able to play
the role he had planned in the Empire and the world. He became the
finest example of the Milner Group's contention that within a united
Empire rested the best opportunities for freedom and self-development
for all men. 10

In the new government formed after the creation of the Union of
South Africa, Smuts held three out of nine portfolios (Mines, Defense,
and Interior). In 1912 he gave up two of these (Mines and Interior) in
exchange for the portfolio of Finance, which he held until the outbreak
of war. As Minister of Defense (1910-1920) and Prime Minister
(1919-1924), he commanded the British forces in East Africa
(1916-1917) and was the South African representative and one of the
chief members of the Imperial War Cabinet (1917-1918). At the Peace
Conference at Paris he was a plenipotentiary and played a very impor-
tant role behind the scenes in cooperation with other members of the
Milner Group. In 1921 he went on a secret mission to Ireland and ar-
ranged for an armistice and opened negotiations between Lloyd
George and the Irish leaders. In the period following the war, his in-
fluence in South African politics declined, but he continued to play an
important role within the Milner Group and in those matters (such as
the Empire) in which the Group was most concerned. With the ap-
proach of the Second World War, he again came to prominence in
political affairs. He was Minister of Justice until the war began
(1933-1939) and then became Prime Minister, holding the Portfolios of

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 79

External Affairs and Defense (1939-1948). Throughout his political
life, his chief lieutenant was Patrick Duncan, whom he inherited
directly from Milner.

Smuts was not the only addition made to the Milner Group by the
Kindergarten during its stay in South Africa. Among the others were
two men who were imported by Milner from the Indian Civil Service
to guide the efforts of the Kindergarten in forming the Transvaal Civil
Service. These two were James S. Meston (later Lord Meston,
1865-1943) and William S. Marris (later Sir William, 1873-1945). Both
had studied briefly at Oxford in preparation for the Indian Civil Ser-
vice. Meston studied at Balliol (after graduating from Aberdeen
University) at the time when Milner was still very close to the college
(c. 1884), and when Toynbee, tutor to Indian Civil Service candidates
at Balliol, had just died. It may have been in this fashion that Milner
became acquainted with Meston and thus called him to South Africa in
1903. Until that time, Meston's career in the Indian Civil Service had
been fairly routine, and after eighteen years of service he had reached
the position of Financial Secretary to the United Provinces.

Marris, a younger colleague of Meston's in the Indian Civil Service,
was a native of New Zealand and, after studying at Canterbury Col-
lege in his own country, went to Christ Church, Oxford, to prepare for
the Indian Civil Service. He passed the necessary examinations and was
made an assistant magistrate in the United Provinces. From this post he
went to South Africa to join the Kindergarten two years after Meston
had.

Meston's position in South Africa was adviser to the Cape Col-
ony and the Transvaal on civil service reform (1904-1906). He re-
mained ever after a member of the Milner Group, being used especially
for advice on Indian affairs. On his return from South Africa, he was
made secretary to the Finance Department of the Government of India
(1906-1912). Two years later he was made Finance Member of the
Governor-General's Council, and, the following year, became a
member of the Imperial Legislative Council. In 1912 he became for
five years Lieutenant Governor of the United Provinces. During this
period he worked very closely with Lionel Curtis on the projected
reforms which ultimately became the Government of India Act of
1919. In 1917 Meston went to London as Indian representative to the
Imperial War Cabinet and to the Imperial Conference of that year. On
his return to India, he again was Finance Member of the Governor-
General's Council until his retirement in 1919. He then returned to
England and, as the newly created Baron Meston of Agra and Dunot-
tar, continued to act as chief adviser on Indian affairs to the Milner
Group. He was placed on the boards of directors of a score of corpora-
tions in which the Group had influence. On several of these he sat with

80 / The Anglo-American Establishment

other members of the Group. Among these we might mention the
English Electric Company (with Hichens), the Galloway Water Power
Company (with Brand), and the British Portland Cement Manufac-
turers Association (with the third Lord Selborne). From its foundation
he was an important member of the Royal Institute of International
Affairs, was chairman of its executive committee in 1919-1926, and
was a member of the council for most of the period 1926-1943.

Marris, who replaced Meston in the Transvaal in 1906, was eight
years his junior (born 1873) and, perhaps for this reason, was much
closer to the member of the Kindergarten and became, if possible, an
even more intimate member of the Milner Group. He became Civil
Service Commissioner of the Transvaal and deputy chairman of the
Committee on the Central South African Railways. He did not return
to India for several years, going with Curtis instead on a world tour
through Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, organizing the Round
Table Groups (1911). It was he who persuaded Curtis, and through
him the Milner Group, that India should be allowed to proceed more
rapidly than had been intended on the path toward self-government.

Back in India in 1912, Marris became a member of the Durbar Ex-
ecutive Committee and, later, secretary to the Home Department of
the Government of India. In 1916 he became Inspector General of
Police for the United Provinces, and the following year Joint Secretary
to the Government of India. During this period he helped Curtis with
the projected reforms plans, and he was made responsible for carrying
them out when the act was passed in 1919, being made Commissioner
of Reforms and Home Secretary to the Government of India
(1919-1921). At the same time he was knighted. After a brief period as
Governor of Assam (1921-1922), he was Governor of the United Pro-
vinces (1922-1928) and a member of the Council of India (1928-1929).
After his retirement from active participation in the affairs of India, he
embarked upon a career in academic administration, which brought
him additional honors. He was Principal of Armstrong College in
1929-1937, Vice-Chancellor and Pro- Vice-Chancellor of Durham
University in 1929-1937, a Governor of the Royal Agricultural College
at Cirencester in 1937-1945.

Marris's son, Adam D. Marris, born in the year his father went to the
Transvaal, is today still a member of the Milner Group. After
graduating from Winchester School and Trinity College, Oxford, he
went to work with Lazard Brothers. There is no doubt that this posi-
tion was obtained through his father's relationship with Brand, at that
time manager of Lazard. Young Marris remained with the banking
firm for ten years, but at the outbreak of war he joined the Ministry of
Economic Warfare for a year. Then he joined the All Souls Group that
was monopolizing the British Embassy in Washington, originally as

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 81

First Secretary and later as Counsellor to the Embassy (1940-1945).
After the war he was British Foreign Office representative on the
Emergency Economic Committee for Europe as secretary-general. In
1946 he returned to Lazard Brothers.

The older Marris brought into the Milner Group from the Indian
Civil Service another member who has assumed increasing importance
in recent years. This was Malcolm Hailey (since 1936 Lord Hailey).
Hailey, a year older than Marris, took the Indian Civil Service ex-
aminations with Marris in 1895 and followed in his footsteps there-
after. Secretary to the Punjab government in 1907 and Deputy
Secretary to the Government of India the following year, he was a
member of the Delhi Durbar Committee in 1912 and Chief Commis-
sioner in that city for the next eight years. In this post he was one of the
advisers used by Curtis on Indian reforms (1916). After the war Hailey
was a member of the Executive Council of the Viceroy in the Financial
and Home Departments (1919-1924), Governor of Punjab (1924-1928),
and Governor of the United Provinces (1928-1930, 1931-1934). During
this last period he was one of the closest advisers to Baron Irwin (Lord
Halifax) during his term as Viceroy (1926-1936). After Hailey left the
Indian Service in 1934, he was used in many important capacities by
the Milner Group, especially in matters concerned with Africa and the
mandates. Since this use illustrates to perfection the skillful way in
which the Milner Group has functioned in recent years, it might be
presented here as a typical case.

We have seen that the Milner Group controlled the Rhodes money
after Rhodes's death in 1902. In 1929 the Group invited General Smuts
to give the Rhodes Lectures at Oxford. In these lectures, Smuts sug-
gested that a detailed survey of Africa and its resources was badly
needed. The Royal Institute of International Affairs took up this sug-
gestion and appointed a committee, with Lord Lothian as chairman, to
study the project. This committee secured the services of the retiring
Governor of the United Provinces to head the survey. Thus Sir Malcolm
Hailey became the director of the project and general editor of the
famous African Survey, published in 1938 by the Royal Institute of In-
ternational Affairs, with funds obtained from the Carnegie Corpora-
tion of New York. Thus the hand of the Milner Group appears in this
work from its first conception to its final fruition, although the general
public, ignorant of the existence of such a group, would never realize
it.

Hailey was also made a member of the Council of the Royal Institute
of International Affairs, a member of the Permanent Mandate Com-
mission of the League of Nations (1935-1939), chairman of the School
of Oriental and African Studies (1941-1945), chairman of Interna-
tional African Institute, president of the Royal Central Asian Society,

82 / The Anglo-American Establishment

chairman of the Colonial Research Committee, member of the Senate
of the University of London, Visiting Fellow of Nuffield College at Ox-
ford (1939-1947), head of an economic mission to the Belgian Congo
(1941), Romanes Lecturer at Oxford (1941), etc., etc.

Along with all these important posts, Lord Hailey found time to
write in those fields with which the Milner Group was most concerned.
Among these works we might mention: Britain and Her Dependencies,
The Future of Colonial Peoples, and Great Britain, India, and the
Colonial Dependencies in the Post-War World (all three published in
1943).

The achievement of the Union of South Africa in 1910 did not mean
the end of the Kindergarten. Instead, it set out to repeat on the im-
perial scene what it had just accomplished in South Africa. In this new
project the inspiration was the same (Milner), the personnel was the
same (the Kindergarten), the methods were the same (with the Round
Table Groups replacing the "Closer Union Societies" and The Round
Table replacing The State. But, as befitted a larger problem, addi-
tional personnel and additional funds were required. The additional
personnel came largely from New College and All Souls; the additional
funds came from Cecil Rhodes and his associates and All Souls. The
older sources of funds (like Abe Bailey) and influence (like The Times)
remained loyal to the Group and continued to assist in this second great
battle of the Milner Group. As John Buchan wrote in his auto-
biography, "Loyalty to Milner and his creed was a strong cement
which endured long after our South African service ended, since the
Round Table coterie in England continued the Kindergarten." Or, if
we may call another competent witness, Lord Oxford and Asquith,
writing of Milner after his death, stated: "His personality was so im-
pressive that he founded a school of able young men who during his
lifetime and since have acknowledged him as their principal political
leader. ... He was an Expansionist, up to a point a Protectionist, with
a strain in social and industrial matters of semi-Socialist sentiment." 11

More convincing, perhaps, than either Buchan or Asquith is the
word of the Group itself. The Round Table, in its issue of September
1935, celebrated its twenty-fifth anniversary by printing a brief history
of the Group. This sketch, while by no means complete and without
mentioning any names of members, provides irrefutable proof of the
existence and importance of the Milner Group. It said, in part:

By the end of 1913 The Round Table had two aspects. On the one hand, it
published a quarterly review. . . . On the other hand, it represented a
body of men united in support of the principle of freedom and enquiring
jointly, through the method of group study, how it could be preserved and
expanded in the conditions of the then existing world. In calling for prep-
aration against the German danger (as it did from the very beginning)

Milner's Kindergarten: 1897-1910 / 83

The Round Table was not merely, or even chiefly, concerned with saving
British skins. It was concerned with upholding against the despotic state
what it began to call "the principle of the commonwealth." . . . The root
principle of The Round Table remained freedom — "the government of
men by themselves" and it demanded that within the Empire this prin-
ciple should be persistently pursued and expressed in institutions. For that
reason it denounced the post-war attempt to repress the Irish demand for
national self-government by ruthless violence after a century of union had
failed to win Irish consent, as a policy in conflict with British wealth; and
it played its part in achieving the Irish Treaty, and the Dominion settle-
ment. Within the limits of the practiceable it fought for the Common-
wealth ideal in India. It was closely associated with the device of dyarchy,
which seemed for the time being the most practical method of preventing
the perpetuation of an irremovable executive confronting an irresponsible
legislature and of giving Indians practical training in responsibility for
government — the device embodied in the Montagu-Chelmsford Report
and the Government of India Act. . . . The Round Table, while support-
ting the legal formulation of national freedom in the shape of Dominion
autonomy, has never lost sight of its ultimate ideal of an organic and ar-
ticulate Commonwealth. The purpose of devolution is not to drive liberty
to the point of license but to prepare for the ultimate basis on which alone
freedom can be preserved the reign of law over all. . . . Federal Union is
the only security for the freedom both of the individual and of the nation.
. . . The principle of anonymity has never been broken and it remains not
only as a means of obtaining material from sources that would otherwise
be closed, but also as a guarantee that both the opinions and the facts pre-
sented in the articles are scrutinized by more than one individual judg-
ment. . . . Imperceptibly, the form of the review has changed to suit
altered circumstances. . . . But the fundamentals remain unchanged.
Groups in the four overseas Dominions still assemble their material and
hammer out their views, metaphorically, "round the table." Some of their
members have shared continuously in this work for a quarter of a century;
and in England, too, the group of friends who came together in South
Africa still help to guide the destinies and contribute to the pages of the
review they founded, though the chances of life and death have taken
some of their number, and others have beeb brought in to contribute new
points of view and younger blood.

The Milner Group, Rhodes,
and Oxford, 1901-1925

It is generally believed, and stated as a fact by many writers, that
Milner hoped for some new political appointment after his return from
Africa and was deprived of this by the election of 1906, which swept
the Conservatives from office and brought in the Liberals. It is per-
fectly true that Milner was out of political life for ten years, but there
is, so far as I know, no evidence that this was contrary to his own wish.
In his farewell speech of March 1905, delivered long before the Liberal
victory at the polls, Milner stated in reference "to the great idea of Im-
perial Unity": "I shall always be steadfast in that faith, though I should
prefer to work quietly and in the background, in the formation of
opinion rather than in the exercise of power." This is exactly what
Milner did. Even after he returned to positions of power in 1915-1921,
he worked as quietly as possible and attracted public attention at an
absolute minimum. 1

Milner had nothing to gain from public office after 1905, until the
great crisis of 1915-1918 made it imperative for all able men to take a
hand in active affairs. If he wanted to speak his own mind, he always
had his seat in the House of Lords, and speaking engagements else-
where were easy — indeed, too easy — to get. In South Africa his union
program after 1905 was going forward at a rate that exceeded his most
optimistic hopes. And nowhere else did it seem, in 1905, that he could,
in actual administration, accomplish more than he could in quietly
building up a combination propaganda and patronage machine at
home. This machine was constructed about Rhodes and his as-
sociates, New College, and All Souls.

Milner was not of any political party himself and regarded party
politics with disgust long before 1905. As his friend Edmund Garrett
wrote in 1905: "Rhodes and Milner both number themselves of that
great unformed party which is neither the ins nor the outs, which
touches here the foreign politics of the one, here the home politics of
the other; a party to which Imperialism and Carlyle's Condition of the
84

The Milner Group, Rhodes and Oxford: 1901-1925 / 85

People Question are one and the same business of fitly rearing,
housing, distributing, coordinating, and training for war and peace
the people of this commonwealth; a party which seems to have no
name, no official leader, no paper even, but which I believe, when it
comes by a soul and a voice, will prove to include a majority of the
British in Britain and a still greater majority of the British overseas." 2
There can be no doubt that these were Milner 's sentiments. He hoped
to give that unformed party "a soul and a voice," and he intended to do
this apart from party politics. When he was offered the position of
president of the imperial federalist organization he refused it, but
wrote to the secretary, Mr. F. H. Congdon, as follows:

Personally I have no political interest worth mentioning, except the main-
tenance of the Imperial connection, and I look upon the future with
alarm. The party system at home and in the Colonies seems to me to work
for the severance of ties, and that contrary to the desire of our people on
both sides. It is a melancholy instance of the manner in which bad
political arrangements, lauded to the skies from year's end to year's end as
the best in the world, may not only injure the interests, but actually
frustrate the desires of the people. I can see no remedy or protection,
under the present circumstances, except a powerful body of men — and it
would have to be very powerful — determined at all times and under all
circumstances to vote and work, regardless of every other circumstance,
against the man or party who played fast and loose with the cause of
National Unity. You can be sure that for my own part I shall always do
that. . . . 3

Milner, in his distaste for party politics and for the parliamentary
system, and in his emphasis on administration for social welfare,
national unity, and imperial federation, was an early example of what
James Burnham has called the "managerial revolution" — that is, the
growth of a group of managers, behind the scenes and beyond the con-
trol of public opinion, who seek efficiently to obtain what they regard
as good for the people. To a considerable extent this point of view
became part of the ideology of the Milner Group, although not of its
most articulate members, like Lionel Curtis, who continued to regard
democracy as a good in itself.

Milner 's own antipathy to democracy as practiced in the existing
party and parliamentary system is obvious. Writing to his old friend
Sir Clinton Dawkins, who had been, with Milner, a member of the
Toynbee group in 1879-1884, he said in 1902: "Two things constantly
strike me. One is the soundness of the British nation as a whole, con-
trasted with the rottenness of party politics." About the same time he
wrote to another old Balliol associate, George Parkin: "I am strongly
impressed by two things: one that the heart of the nation is
sound, — and secondly that our constitution and methods are anti-

86 / The Anglo-American Establishment

quated and bad, and the real sound feeling of the nation does not get a
chance of making itself effective." Two years later he wrote to a friend
of Rhodes, Sir Lewis Michell: "Representative government has its
merits, no doubt, but the influence of representative assemblies,
organized on the party system, upon administration — 'government' in
the true sense of the word — is almost uniformly bad." 4

With sentiments such as these, Milner laid down the duties of public
office with relief and devoted himself, not to private affairs, but to the
secret public matters associated with his "Association of Helpers." To
support himself during this period, Milner acted as confidential adviser
to certain international financiers in London's financial district. His
entree to this lucrative occupation may have been obtained through
Lord Esher, who had just retired from a similar well-remunerated col-
laboration with Sir Ernest Cassel.

Milner's most important work in this period was concerned with the
administration of the Rhodes Trust and the contacts with Oxford
University which arose out of this and from his own position as a
Fellow of New College.

The Rhodes Trust was already in operation when Milner returned
from Africa in 1905, with the actual management of the scholarships in
the hands of George Parkin, who had been brought from his position as
Principal of Upper Canada College by Milner. He held the post for
eighteen years (1902-1920). The year following his appointment, an
Oxford secretary to the trustees was appointed to handle the local work
during Parkin's extended absences. This appointment went to Francis
Wylie (Sir Francis since 1929), Fellow and tutor of Brasenose, who was
named by the influence of Lord Rosebery, whose sons he had tutored. 5
The real control of the trust has rested with the Milner Group from
1902 to the present. Milner was the only really active trustee and he
controlled the bureaucracy which handled the trust. As secretary to the
trustees before 1929, we find, for example, George Parkin (1902-1920),
Geoffrey Dawson (1921-1922), Edward Grigg (1922-1925), and Lord
Lothian (1925-1940) — all of them clearly Milner's nominees. On the
Board of Trustees itself, in the same period, we find Lord Rosebery,
Lord Milner, Lord Grey, Dr. Jameson, Alfred Beit, Lewis Michell, B.
F. Hawksley, Otto Beit, Rudyard Kipling, Leopold Amery, Stanley
Baldwin, Geoffrey Dawson, H. A. L. Fisher, Sothern Holland, and Sir
Edward Peacock. Peacock had been teacher of English and house-
master at Upper Canada College during the seven years in which
Parkin was principal of that institution (1895-1902) and became an in-
ternational financier as soon as Parkin became secretary of the Rhodes
Trust. Apparently he did not represent the Rhodes Trust but rather the
interests of that powerful and enigmatic figure Edward Rogers Wood
of Toronto. Wood and Peacock were very close to the Canadian branch

The Milner Group, Rhodes and Oxford: 1901-1925 / 87

of the Milner Group, that is to say, to A. J. Glazebrook, Parkin, and
the Massey family, but it is not clear that either represented the in-
terests of the Milner Group. Peacock was associated at first with the
Dominion Securities Corporation of London (1902-1915) and later
with Baring Brothers as a specialist in utility enterprises in Mexico,
Spain, and Brazil (1915-1924). He was made Receiver-General of the
Duchy of Cornwall in 1929 and was knighted in 1934. He was a direc-
tor of the Bank of England from 1921-1946, managing director of
Baring Brothers from 1926, a director of Vickers-Armstrong from 1929,
and in addition a director of many world-famous corporations, such as
the Canadian Pacific Railway, the Hudson Bay Company, and the Sun
Life Assurance Society. He was an expert at the Genoa Conference in
1922 and acted as the British Treasury's representative in Washington
during the Second World War.

If we look at the list of Rhodes Trustees, we see that the Milner
Group always had complete control. Omitting the five original
trustees, we see that five of the new additions were from the Milner
Group, three were from the Rhodes clique, and three represented the
outside world. In the 1930s the Board was stabilized for a long period
as Amery, Baldwin, Dawson, Fisher, Holland, and Peacock, with
Lothian as secretary. Six of these seven were of the Milner Group, four
from the inner core.

A somewhat similar situation existed in respect to the Beit Railway
Fund. Although of German birth, Alfred Beit became a British subject
and embraced completely the ideas on the future role of the British
Empire shared by Rhodes and Milner. An intimate friend of these and
of Lord Rosebery, he was especially concerned with the necessity to
link the British possessions in Africa together by improved transporta-
tion (including the Cape to Cairo Railway). Accordingly, he left
£1,200,000 as the Beit Railway Trust, to be used for transportation and
other improvements in Africa. The year before his death (1906), he was
persuaded by the Milner Group to establish a Beit Professorship and a
Beit Lecturership in Colonial History at Oxford. The money provided
yielded an income far in excess of the needs of these two chairs, and the
surplus has been used for other "imperialist" purposes. In addition,
Beit gave money to the Bodleian Library at Oxford for books on
colonial history. In 1929, when Rhodes House was opened, these and
other books on the subject were moved from the Bodleian to Rhodes
House, and the Beit Professor was given an office and lecture hall in
Rhodes House. There have been only two incumbents of the Beit Pro-
fessorship since 1905: Hugh Edward Egerton in 1905-1920, and
Reginald (Sir Reginald since 1944) Coupland since 1920. Egerton, a
member of the Cecil Bloc and the Round Table Group, was a contem-
porary of Milner 's at Oxford whose father was a member of the House

88 / The Anglo-American Establishment

of Commons and Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs. He was orig-
inally private secretary to his cousin Edward Stanhope, Colonial
Secretary and Secretary of War in Lord Salisbury's first government.
In 1886, Egerton became a member of the managing committee of the
newly created Emigrants Information Office. He held this job for
twenty years, during which time he came into the sphere of the Milner
Group, partly because of the efforts of South Africa, and especially the
British South Africa Company, to encourage emigration to their ter-
ritories, but also because of his Short History of British Colonial Policy,
published in 1897. On the basis of this contact and this book, he was
given the new Beit Chair in 1905 and with it a fellowship at All Souls.
In his professional work he constantly supported the aims of the Milner
Group, including the publication of Federations and Unions within the
British Empire (1911) and British Colonial Policy in the Twentieth
Century (1922). His book Canadian Constitutional Development,
along with Sir Charles Lucas's edition of Lord Durham's reports, was
the chief source of information for the process by which Canada was
federated used by the Milner Group. He wrote the biography of Joseph
Chamberlain in the Dictionary of National Biography, while his own
biography in the same collection was written by Reginald Coupland.
He remained a Fellow of All Souls and a member of the Milner Group
until his death in 1927, although he yielded his academic post to
Reginald Coupland in 1920. Coupland, who was a member of the
Milner Group from his undergraduate days at New College
(1903-1907), and who became one of the inner circle of the Milner
Group as early as 1914, will be discussed later. He has been, since 1917,
one of the most important persons in Britain in the formation of British
imperial policy.

The Beit Railway Trust and the Beit chairs at Oxford have been con-
trolled by the Milner Group from the beginning, through the board of
trustees of the former and through the board of electors of the latter.
Both of these have interlocking membership with the Rhodes Trust and
the College of All Souls. For example, the board of electors of the Beit
chair in 1910 consisted of the Vice-Chancellor of Oxford, the Regius
Professor of Modern History, the Chichele Professor of Modern
History, the Secretary of State for Colonies, Viscount Milner, H. A. L.
Fisher, and Leopold Amery. By controlling All Souls and the two pro-
fessorships (both ex-officio fellowships of All Souls), the Milner Group
could control five out of seven electors to the Beit professorship. In re-
cent years the board of electors has consistently had a majority of
members of All Souls and/or the Milner Group. In 1940, for example,
the board had, besides three ex-officio members, two members of All
Souls, a Rhodes Trustee, and H. A. L. Fisher.

The Beit Lectureship in Colonial History was similarly controlled. In

The Milner Group, Rhodes and Oxford: 1901-1925 / 89

1910 its board of electors had seven members, four ex-officio (The
Vice-Chancellor, the Regius Professor of History, the Chichele Pro-
fessor of History, the Beit Professor) and three others (A. L. Smith,
H. A. L. Fisher, and Leopold Amery). In 1930 the board consisted of
the Vice-Chancellor, the Beit Professor, H. A. L. Fisher, F. M. Po-
wicke, and three fellows of All Souls. As a result, the lectureship has
generally been held by persons close to the Milner Group, as can be
seen from the following list of incumbents:

W. L. Grant, 1906-1910
J. Munro, 1910-1912
L. Curtis, 1912-1913
R. Coupland, 1913-1918
E. M. Wrong, 1919-1924
K. N. Bell, 1924-1927
W. P. Morrell, 1927-1930
V. T. Harlow, 1930-1935
K. C. Wheare, 1935-1940

Without attempting to identify all of these completely, it should be
pointed out that four were Fellows of All Souls, while, of the others,
one was the son-in-law of George Parkin, another was the son-in-law
of A. L. Smith, and a third was librarian of Rhodes House and later
acting editor of The Round Table.

During this period after 1905, the Milner Group was steadily
strengthening its relationships with New College, All Souls, and to
some extent with Balliol. Through Fisher and Milner there came into
the Group two tutors and a scholar of New College. These were Alfred
Zimmern, Robert S. Rait (1874-1936), and Reginald Coupland.

Alfred Zimmern (Sir Alfred since 1936) was an undergraduate at
New College with Kerr, Grigg, Brand, Curtis, Malcolm, and Waldorf
Astor (later Lord Astor) in 1898-1902. As lecturer, fellow, and tutor
there in the period 1903-1909, he taught a number of future members
of the Milner Group, of whom the chief was Reginald Coupland. His
teaching and his book The Greek Commonwealth (1911) had a pro-
found effect on the thinking of the inner circle of the Milner Group, as
can be seen, for example, in the writings of Lionel Curtis. In the period
up to 1921 he was close to this inner core and in fact can be considered
as a member of it. After 1921 he disagreed with the policy of the inner
core toward the League of Nations and Germany, since the core
wanted to weaken the one and strengthen the other, an opinion exactly
opposite to that of Zimmern. He remained, however, a member of the
Group and was, indeed, its most able member and one of its most
courageous members. Since his activities will be mentioned frequently
in the course of this study, we need do no more than point out his

90 / The Anglo-American Establishment

various positions here. He was a staff inspector of the Board of Educa-
tion in 1912-1915; the chief assistant to Lord Robert Cecil in the
Political Intelligence Department of the Foreign Office in 1918-1919;
Wilson Professor of International Politics at University College of
Wales, Abersytwyth, in 1919-1921; Professor of Political Science at
Cornell in 1922-1923; deputy director and chief administrator of the
League of Nations Institute of Intellectual Cooperation in 1926-1930;
Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at Oxford in
1930-1944; deputy director of the Research Department of the Foreign
Office in 1943-1945; adviser to the Ministry of Education in 1945;
director of the Geneva School of International Studies in 1925-1939;
adviser and chief organizer of the United Nations Educational, Scien-
tific, and Cultural Organization in 1946; and Visiting Professor at
Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut, from 1947.

Another Fellow of New College who joined the Milner Group was R.
S. Rait (1874-1936). Of much less significance than Zimmern, he
worked with the Group in the Trade Intelligence Department of the
War Office in 1915-1918. He is the chief reason why the Milner Group,
especially in the writings of Lionel Curtis, emphasized the union with
Scotland as a model for the treatment of Ireland. A close friend of A. V.
Dicey, Fellow of All Souls, he wrote with him Thoughts on the Union
between England and Scotland (1920), and, with C. H. Firth, another
Fellow of All Souls, he wrote Acts and Ordonnances of the Inter-
regnum, 1642-1660 (1911). He left New College in 1913 to become Pro-
fessor of Scottish History at the University of Glasgow (1913-1929) and
five years later was made Royal Historiographer of Scotland
(1919-1929). Originally intimate with the inner circle of the Milner
Group, he drifted away after 1913.

Reginald Coupland (Sir Reginald since 1944) came into the Milner
Group's inner circle shortly before Rait moved out, and has been there
ever since. A student of Zimmern's at New College in 1903-1907, he
became a Fellow and lecturer in ancient history at Trinity College, Ox-
ford, immediately upon graduation and stayed there for seven years.
Since then his academic career has carried him to the following posi-
tions: Beit Lecturer in Colonial History (1913-1918), Beit Professor of
Colonial History (since 1920), Fellow of All Souls (since 1920), and
Fellow of Nuffield College (since 1939). He was also editor of The
Round Table after Lord Lothian left (1917-1919) and again at the
beginning of the Second World War (1939-1941). His most important
activities, however, have been behind the scenes: as member of the
Royal Commission on Superior Civil Services in India (1923), as ad-
viser to the Burma Round Table Conference of 1931, as a member of
the Peel Commission to Palestine (1936-1937), and as a member of Sir
Stafford Cripps's Mission to India (1942). He is reputed to have been

The Milner Group, Rhodes and Oxford: 1901-1925 / 91

the chief author of the Peel Report of 1937, which recommended parti-
tion of Palestine and restriction of Jewish immigration into the
area — two principles which remained at the basis of British policy until
1949. In fact, the pattern of partition contained in the Peel Report,
which would have given Transjordan an outlet to the Mediterranean
Sea across the southern portion of Palestine, was a subject of violent
controversy in 1948.

Coupland has been a prolific writer. Besides his many historical
works, he has written many books that reflect the chief subjects of
discussion in the inmost circle of the Milner Group. Among these, we
might mention Freedom and Unity, his lecture at Patna College, India,
in 1924; The American Revolution and the British Empire (1930); The
Empire in These Days (1935); The Cripps Mission (1942); and Report
on the Constitutional Problem in India (3 parts, 1942-1943).

The Milner Group's relationships with All Souls were also
strengthened after Milner returned to England in 1905, and especially
after the Kindergarten returned to England in 1909-1911. The Milner
Group's strength in All Souls, however, was apparently not sufficiently
strong for them to elect a member of the Milner Group as Warden
when Anson died in 1914, for his successor, Francis W. Pember, one-
time assistant legal adviser to the Foreign Office, and a Fellow of All
Souls since 1884, was of the Cecil Bloc rather than of the Milner
Group. Pember did not, however, resist the penetration of the Milner
Group into All Souls, and as a result both of his successors as Warden,
W. G. S. Adams (1933-1945) and B. H. Sumner (1945- ), were mem-
bers of the Milner Group.

In general, the movement of persons was not from the Milner Group
to All Souls but in the reverse direction. All Souls, in fact, became the
chief recruiting agency for the Milner Group, as it had been before
1903 for the Cecil Bloc. The inner circle of this Group, because of its
close contact with Oxford and with All Souls, was in a position to
notice able young undergraduates at Oxford. These were admitted to
All Souls and at once given opportunities in public life and in writing
or teaching, to test their abilities and loyalty to the ideals of the Milner
Group. If they passed both of these tests, they were gradually admitted
to the Milner Group's great fiefs such as the Royal Institute of Interna-
tional Affairs, The Times, The Round Table, or, on the larger scene, to
the ranks of the Foreign or Colonial Offices. So far as I know, none of
these persons recruited through All Souls ever reached the inner circle
of the Milner Group, at least before 1939. This inner circle continued
to be largely monopolized by the group that had been in South Africa
in the period before 1909. The only persons who were not in South
Africa, yet reached the inner circle of the Milner Group, would appear
to be Coupland, Lord Astor, Lady Astor, Arnold Toynbee, and H. V.

92 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Hodson. There may be others, for it is difficult for an outsider to be
sure in regard to such a secret matter.

Of the members of All Souls who got into at least the second circle of
the Milner Group, we should mention the names of the following:

Name

Birth

College

All Souls

Date

Fellow

W. G. S. Adams

1874

Balliol 1896-1900

1910- (Warden
1933-1945)

K. N. Bell

1884

Balliol 1903-1906

1907-1914

I. Berlin

1909

Corpus Christi

1928-1932

1932-1939

H. B. Butler

1883

Balliol 1902-1905

1905-1912

R. D'O. Butler

Balliol 1935-1938

1938-

F. Clarke

Balliol 1905-1908

1908-1915

P. E. Corbett

1892

Balliol 1919-1920

1920-1928

C. R. M. F.

Cruttwell

Queen's 1906-1910

1911-1918

H. W. C. Davis

1874

Balliol 1891-1895

1895-1902

G. C. Faber

1889

Christ Church

1908-1913

1919-

J. G. Foster

New College

1922-1925

1924-

M. L. Gwyer

1878

Christ Church

1897-1901

1902-1916

W. K. Hancock

1898

Balliol 1922-1923

1924-1930,
1944-

C. R. S. Harris

1896

Corpus Christi

1918-1923

1921-1936

H. V. Hodson

1906

Balliol 1925-1928

1928-1935

C. A. Macartney

1896

Trinity College,

Cambridge

1936-

R. M. Makins

1904

Christ Church

1922-1925

1925-1932

J. Morley

1838

Lincoln 1856-1859

1904-1911

C. J. Radcliffe

1899

New College

1919-1922

1922-1937

J. A. Salter

1881

Brasenose 1899-1904

1932-

D. B. Somervell

1889

Magdalen 1907-1911

1912-

A. H. D. R. Steel-

Mai tland

1876

Balliol 1896-1900

1900-1907

B. H. Sumner

1893

Balliol 1912-1916

1919-1926,
Warden 1945-

L. F. R. Williams

1890

University 1909-1912

1914-1921

E. L. Woodward

1890

Corpus Christi

1908-1911

1911-1944

The Milner Group, Rhodes and Oxford: 1901-1925 / 93

Of these twenty-five names, four were Fellows of Balliol during the
periods in which they were not Fellows of All Souls (Bell, David,
Sumner, and Woodward).

It is not necessary to say much about these various men at this time,
but certain of them should be identified. The others will be mentioned
later.

William George Stewart Adams was lecturer in Economics at Chi-
cago and Manchester universities and Superintendent of Statistics and
Intelligence in the Department of Agriculture before he was elected to
All Souls in 1910. Then he was Gladstone Professor of Political Theory
and Institutions (1912-1933), a member of the committee to advise the
Irish Cabinet (1911), in the Ministry of Munitions (1915), Secretary to
Lloyd George (1916-1919), editor of the War Cabinet Reports
(1917-1918), and a member of the Committee on Civil Service Ex-
aminations (1918).

The Reverend Kenneth Norman Bell was lecturer in history at
Toronto University during his fellowship in All Souls (1907-1914); a
director of G. Bell and Sons, Publishers; a tutor and Fellow of Balliol
(1919-1941); Beit Lecturer in Colonial History (1924-1927); and a
member of the committee for supervision of the selection of candidates
for the Colonial Administrative Service. He edited, with W. P.
Morrell, Select Documents in British Colonial History, 1830-1860
(1928).

Harold Beresford Butler (Sir Harold since 1946) was a civil servant,
chiefly in the Home Office, and secretary to the British delegation to
the International Conference on Aerial Navigation in Paris during his
Fellowship at All Souls. He was subsequently in the Foreign Trade
Department of the Foreign Office (1914-1917) and in the Ministry of
Labour (1917-1919). On the Labour Commission of the Paris Peace
Conference and at the International Labor Conference in Washington
(1919), he later became deputy director (1920-1932) and director
(1932-1938) of the International Labour Office of the League of Na-
tions. Since 1939, he has been Warden of Nuffield College (1939-1943)
and minister in charge of publicity in the British Embassy in Wash-
ington (1942-1946). He has written a number of books, including a
history of the interwar period called The Lost Peace (1941).

H. W. C. Davis, the famous medieval historian, became a Fellow of
All Souls immediately after graduating from Balliol in 1895, and was a
Fellow of Balliol for nineteen years after that, resigning from the latter
to become Professor of History at Manchester University (1921-1925).
During this period he was a lecturer at New College (1897-1899),
Chichele Lecturer in Foreign History (1913), editor of the Oxford
Pamphlets on the war (1914-1915), one of the organizers of the War

94 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Trade Intelligence Department of the Ministry of Blockade in the
Foreign Office (1915), acting director of the Department of Overseas
Trade under Sir Arthur Steel-Maitland (1917-1919), an expert at the
Paris Peace Conference (1918-1919), and editor of the Dictionary of
National Biography (1920-1928). In 1925 he returned from Manchester
to Oxford as Regius Professor of Modern History in succession to Sir
Charles Firth, became a Fellow of Oriel College, Curator of the
Bodleian, and was named by the International Labour Office (that is,
by Harold Butler) as the British representative on the Blanesburgh
Committee on Factory Legislation in Europe. He edited the report of
this committee. In addition to his very valuable studies in medieval
history, Davis also wrote The History of the Blockade (1920) and sec-
tions of the famous History of the Peace Conference, edited by Harold
Temperley (also a member of the Group).

Sir Maurice Linford Gwyer was a Fellow of All Souls for fourteen
years after graduating from Christ Church (1902-1916). During this
time he was admitted to the bar, practiced law, was lecturer in Private
International Law at Oxford (1912-1915) and solicitor to the Insurance
Commissioners (1902-1916). He was then legal adviser to the Ministry
of Shipping (1917-1919) and to the Ministry of Health (1919-1926),
then Procurator-General and Solicitor to the Treasury (1926-1933),
First Parliamentary Counsel to the Treasury (1934-1937), and Chief
Justice of India (1937-1943) . He was first British delegate to The Hague
Conference on Codification of International Law (1930) and a member
of the Indian States Inquiry Committee (1932). He edited the later edi-
tions of Anson's Law of Contract and Law and Custom of the Constitu-
tion.

William Keith Hancock, of Australia and Balliol, was a member of
AH Souls from 1924. He was Professor of History at Adelaide in
1924-1933, Professor of Modern History at Birmingham in 1934-1944,
and is now Chichele Professor of Economic History at Oxford. He
wrote the three-volume work Survey of British Commonwealth Af-
fairs, published by Chatham House in 1937-1942.

John Morley (Lord Morley of Blackburn) was a member of the Cecil
Bloc rather than of the Milner Group, but in one respect, his insistence
on the inadvisability of using force and coercion within the Empire, a
difference which appeared most sharply in regard to Ireland, he was
more akin to the Group than to the Bloc. He was a close friend of Lord
Salisbury, Lord Esher, and Joseph Chamberlain and was also a friend
of Milner 's, since they worked together on the Pall Mall Gazette in
1882-1883. He had close personal and family connections with H. A. L.
Fisher, the former going back to a vacation together in 1892 and the
latter based on Morley 's lifelong friendship with Fisher's uncle, Leslie
Stephen. It was probably through Fisher's influence that Morley was

The Milner Group, Rhodes and Oxford: 1901-1925 / 95

elected a Fellow of All Souls in 1904. He had shown that his heart was
in the right place, so far as the Milner Group was concerned, in 1894,
when Gladstone retired from the leadership of the Liberal Party and
Morley used his influence to give the vacant position to Lord Rosebery.
Morley was Secretary of State for India in the period 1905-1910, put-
ting through the famous Morley-Minto reforms in this period. In this
he made use of a number of members of the Milner and All Souls
groups. The bill itself was put through the House of Commons by a
member of All Souls, Thomas R. Buchanan (1846-1911), who was
shifted from Financial Secretary in the War Office under Haldane to
Under Secretary in the India Office for the purpose (1908-1909). 6

James Arthur Salter (Sir Arthur since 1922) was born in Oxford and
lived there until he graduated from Brasenose in 1904. He went to
work for the Shipping Department of the Admiralty in the same year
and worked in this field for most of the next fourteen years. In 1917 he
was Director of Ship Requisitioning and later secretary and chairman
of the Allied Maritime Transport Executive. He was on the Supreme
Economic Council in 1919 and became general secretary to the Rep-
arations Commission for almost three years (1920-1922). He was Direc-
tor of the Economic and Finance Section of the League of Nations in
1919-1922 and again in 1922-1931. In the early 1930s he went on
several missions to India and China and served on various committees
concerned with railroad matters. He was Gladstone Professor of
Political Theory and Institutions in 1934-1944, Member of Parliament
from Oxford University after 1937, Parliamentary Secretary to the
Ministry of Shipping in 1939-1941, head of the British Merchant
Shipping Mission in America in 1941-1943, Senior Deputy Director
General of UNRRA in 1944, and Chancellor to the Duchy of Lancaster
in 1945.

Donald B. Somervell (Sir Donald since 1933) has been a Fellow of
All Souls since he graduated from Magdalen in 1911, although he took
his degree in natural science. He entered Parliament as a Unionist in
1931 and almost at once began a governmental career. He was Solicitor
General (1933-1936), Attorney General (1936-1945), and Home Sec-
retary (1945), before becoming a Lord Justice of Appeal in 1946. His
brother, D. C. Somervell, edited the one- volume edition of Toynbee's
A Study of History for Chatham House.

Sir Arthur Ramsay Steel-Maitland was a Fellow of All Souls for the
seven years following his graduation from Balliol in 1900. He was un-
successful as a candidate for Parliament in 1906, but was elected as a
Conservative from Birmingham four years later. He was Parliamentary
Under Secretary for Colonies (1915-1917), Joint Parliamentary Under
Secretary in the Foreign Office and Parliamentary Secretary to the
Board of Trade in the capacity of head of the Department of Overseas

96 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Trade (1917-1919), and Minister of Labour (1924-1929).

Benedict H. Sumner was a Fellow of All Souls for six years
(1919-1928) and a Fellow of Balliol for twenty (1925-1944), before he
became Warden of All Souls (1945). During the First World War, he
was with Military Intelligence and afterwards with the British delega-
tion at the Peace Conference. During the Second World War, he was
attached to the Foreign Office (1939-1942). He is an authority on Rus-
sian affairs, and this probably played an important part in his selection
as Warden of All Souls in 1945.

Laurence F. R. Williams went to Canada as lecturer in medieval
history at Queen's University after leaving Balliol (1913-1914). Im-
mediately on becoming a Fellow of All Souls in 1914, he went to India
as Professor of Indian History at the University of Allahabad. In 1918
and in 1919 he was busy on constitutional reforms associated with the
Government of India Act of 1919, working closely with Sir William
Marris. He then became director of the Central Bureau of Information
for six years (1920-1926) and secretary to the Chancellor of the
Chamber of Princes for four (1926-1930). He was, in this period, also
secretary to the Indian Delegation at the Imperial Conference of 1923,
political secretary to the Maharaja of Patiala, substitute delegate to the
Assembly of the League of Nations (1925), member of the Legislative
Assembly (1924-1925), joint director of the Indian Princes' Special
Organization (1929-1931), adviser to the Indian States delegation at
the Round Table Conference of 1930-1931, and delegate to the Round
Table Conference of 1932. In the 1930s he was Eastern Service director
of the BBC (under H. A. L. Fisher), and in the early days of the Second
World War was adviser on Middle East Affairs to the Ministry of Infor-
mation. Since 1944 he has been in the editorial department of The
Times. His written output is considerable, much of it having been
published as official documents or parliamentary papers. Among these
are the Moral and Material Progress Reports of India for 1917-1925,
the official Report on Lord Chelmsford's Administration, and the of-
ficial History of the Tour of the Prince of Wales. He also wrote Lec-
tures on the Handling of Historical Material (1917), a History of the
Abbey of St. Alban (1917), and a half dozen books and pamphlets on
India.

Ernest Llewellyn Woodward, the last Fellow of All Souls whom we
shall mention here, is of great significance. After studying at Oxford
for seven years (1908-1915) he went into the British Expeditionary
Force for three, and then was elected a Fellow of All Souls, an appoint-
ment he held until he became a Fellow of Balliol in the middle of the
1940s. He was also a tutor and lecturer at New College, a Rhodes
Travelling Fellow (1931), and in 1944 succeeded Sir Alfred Zimmern as
Montague Burton Professor of International Relations. When the deci-

The Milner Group, Rhodes and Oxford: 1901-1925 / 97

sion was made after the Second World War to publish an extensive
selection of Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919-1939, Wood-
ward was made general editor of the series and at once associated with
himself Rohan D'Olier Butler, who has been a Fellow of All Souls since
leaving Balliol in 1938.

Woodward was a member of the council of the Royal Institute of In-
ternational Affairs in the middle 1930s, and domestic bursar of All
Souls a little later. He has written a number of historical works, of
which the best known are Volume XIII of the Oxford History of
England ("The Age of Reform," 1938), Three Studies in European
Conservatism (1929), and Great Britain and the German Navy (1935).

These twenty-five names give the chief members of All Souls, in the
period before 1939, who became links with the Milner Group and who
have not previously been discussed. In the same period the links with
New College and Balliol were also strengthened. The process by which
this was done for the former, through men like H. A. L. Fisher, has
already been indicated. Somewhat similar but less intimate relation-
ships were established with Balliol, especially after A. L. Smith became
Master of that college in 1916. Smith, as we have indicated, was a con-
temporary and old friend of Milner at Balliol and shared his (and
Toynbee's) ideas regarding the necessity of uplifting the working classes
and preserving the Empire. His connections with Fisher and with All
Souls were intimate. He was a close friend of Lord Brassey, whose
marital relationships with the Rosebery and Brand families and with
the Cecil Bloc have been mentioned already. Through A. L. Smith,
Brassey reorganized the financial structure of the Balliol foundation in
1904. He was, as we have shown, a close collaborator of Milner in his
secret plans, by intimate personal relationships before 1897 and by fre-
quent correspondence after that date. There can be no doubt that A. L.
Smith shared in this confidence. He was a collaborator with the Round
Table Group after 1910, being especially useful, by his Oxford posi-
tion, in providing an Oxford background for Milner Group propa-
ganda among the working classes. This will be mentioned later. A. L.
Smith's daughter Mary married a Fellow of All Souls, F. T. Bar-
rington-Ward, whose older brother, R. M. Barrington-Ward, was
assistant editor of The Times in 1927-1941 and succeeded Dawson as
editor in 1941. Smith's son, A. L. F. Smith, was elected to All Souls in
1904, was director, and later adviser, of education to the Government
of Iraq in 1920-1931, and was Rector of Edinburgh Academy from
1931 to 1945.

A. L. Smith remained as Master of Balliol from 1916 to his death in
1924. His biographical sketch in The Dictionary of National Biography
was written by K. N. Bell of All Souls.

The influence of the Milner Group and the Cecil Bloc on Balliol in

98 / The Anglo-American Establishment

the twentieth century can be seen from the following list of persons
who were Fellows or Honorary Fellows of Balliol:

Archbishop Lang K. N. Bell

Lord Asquith H. W. C. Davis

Lord Brassey J. H. Hofmeyr

Lord Curzon Vincent Massey

Lord Ernie F. W. Pember

Lord Grey of Fallodon A. L. Smith

Lord Lansdowne B. H. Sumner

Lord Milner A. J. Toynbee

Leopold Amery E. L. Woodward

Of these eighteen names, nine were Fellows of All Souls, and seven
were clearly of the Milner Group.

There was also a close relationship between the Milner Group and
New College. The following list gives the names of eight members of
the Milner Group who were also Fellows or Honorary Fellows of New
College in the years 1900-1947:

Lord Lothian

Lord Milner

Isaiah Berlin

H. A. L. Fisher

Sir Samuel Hoare (Lord Templewood)

Gilbert Murray

W. G. A. Ormsby-Gore (Lord Harlech)

Sir Alfred Zimmern

If we wished to add names to the Cecil Bloc, we would add those of
Lord David Cecil, Lord Quickswood (Lord Hugh Cecil), and Bishop
A. C. Headlam.

It is clear from these lists that almost every important member of the
Milner Group was a fellow of one of the three colleges — Balliol, New
College, or All Souls. Indeed, these three formed a close relationship,
the first two on the undergraduate level and the last in its own unique
position. The three were largely dominated by the Milner Group, and
they, in turn, largely dominated the intellectual life of Oxford in the
fields of law, history, and public affairs. They came close to dom-
inating the university itself in administrative matters. The relation-
ships among the three can be demonstrated by the proportions of All
Souls Fellows who came from these two colleges, in relation to the
numbers which came from the other eighteen colleges at Oxford or
from the outside world. Of the one hundred forty-nine Fellows at All
Souls in the twentieth century, forty-eight came from Balliol and thirty
from New College, in spite of the fact that Christ Church was larger

The Milner Group, Rhodes and Oxford: 1901-1925 I 99

than these and Trinity, Magdalen, Brasenose, St. John's, and Univer-
sity colleges were almost as large. Only thirty-two came from these
other five large colleges, while at least fifteen were educated outside
Oxford.

The power of the Cecil Bloc and the Milner Group in Oxford in the
twentieth century can be seen by glancing at the list of Chancellors of
the University during the century: 7

Lord Salisbury, 1869-1903

Lord Goschen, 1903-1907

Lord Curzon, 1907-1925

Lord Milner, 1925-

Lord George Cave, 1925-1928

Lord Grey of Fallodon, 1928-1933

Lord Halifax, 1933-

The influence of the Milner Group at Oxford was sufficient to enable
it to get control of the Dictionary of National Biography after this work
was given to the university in 1917. This control was exercised by H.
W. C. Davis and his protege J. R. H. Weaver during the period before
1938. The former had been brought into the gifted circle because he
was a Fellow of All Souls and later a Fellow of Balliol (1895-1921). In
this connection he was naturally acquainted with Weaver (who was a
Fellow of Trinity from 1913 to 1938) and brought him into the War
Trade Intelligence Department when Davis organized this under
Cecil-Milner auspices in 1915. Davis became editor of the Dictionary
of National Biography under the same auspices in 1921 and soon asked
Weaver to join him. They jointly produced the Dictionary supplement
for 1912-1921. After Davis's death in 1928, Weaver became editor and
brought out the supplement for 1922-1930. 8 He continued as editor un-
til shortly before he was made President of Trinity College in 1938.
Weaver wrote the sketch of Davis in the Dictionary and also a larger
work called Henry William Carless Davis, a Memoir and a Selection of
His Historical Papers, published in 1933.

This control of the Dictionary of National Biography will explain
how the Milner Group controlled the writing of the biographies of its
own members so completely in that valuable work. This fact will
already have been observed in the present work. The only instance, ap-
parently, where a member of the Milner Group or the Cecil Bloc did
not have his biographical sketch written by another member of these
groups is to be found in the case of Lord Phillimore, whose sketch was
written by Lord Sankey, who was not a member of the groups in ques-
tion. Phillimore is also the only member of these groups whose sketch is
not wholeheartedly adulatory.

The influence of the Milner Group in academic circles is by no means

100 / The Anglo-American Establishment

exhausted by the brief examination just made of Oxford. At Oxford
itself, the Group has been increasingly influential in Nuffield College,
while outside of Oxford it apparently controls (or greatly influences)
the Stevenson Professorship of International Relations at London; the
Rhodes Professorship of Imperial History at London; Rirkbeck College
at London; the George V Professorship of History in Cape Town
University; and the Wilson Professorship of International Politics at
University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. Some of these are con-
trolled completely, while others are influenced in varying degrees. In
Canada the influence of the Group is substantial, if not decisive, at the
University of Toronto and at Upper Canada College. At Toronto the
Glazebrook-Massey influence is very considerable, while at present the
Principal of Upper Canada College is W. L. Grant, son-in-law of
George Parkin and former Beit Lecturer at Oxford. Vincent Massey is a
governor of the institution.

6

1 he I lmes

Beyond the academic field, the Milner Group engaged in journalistic
activities that sought to influence public opinion in directions which
the Group desired. One of the earliest examples of this, and one of the
few occasions on which the Group appeared as a group in the public
eye, was in 1905, the year in which Milner returned from Africa. At
that time the Group published a volume, The Empire and the Century,
consisting of fifty articles on various aspects of the imperial problem.
The majority of these articles were written by members of the Milner
Group, in spite of the fact that so many of the most important members
were still in Africa with Lord Selborne. The volume was issued under
the general editorship of Charles S. Goldman, a friend of John Buchan
and author of With General French and the Cavalry in South Africa.
Among those who wrote articles were W. F. Monypenny, Bernard
Holland, John Buchan, Henry Birchenough, B. B. Haldane, Bishop
Lang, L. S. Amery, Evelyn Cecil, George Parkin, Edmund Garrett,
Geoffrey Dawson, E. B. Sargant (one of the Kindergarten), Lionel
Phillips, Valentine Chirol, and Sir Frederick and Lady Lugard.

This volume has many significant articles, several of which have
already been mentioned. It was followed by a sequel volume, called
The Empire and the Future, in 1916. The latter consisted of a series of
lectures delivered at King's College, University of London, in 1915,
under the sponsorship of the Royal Colonial Institute. The lectures
were by members of the Milner Group who included A. L. Smith,
H. A. L. Fisher, Philip Kerr, and George R. Parkin. ' A somewhat sim-
ilar series of lectures was given on the British Dominions at the Univer-
sity of Birmingham in 1910-1911 by such men as Alfred Lyttelton,
Henry Birchenough, and William Hely-Hutchinson. These were
published by Sir William Ashley in a volume called The British Domin-
ions.

These efforts, however, were too weak, too public, and did not reach
the proper persons. Accordingly, the real efforts of the Milner Group

101

102 / The Anglo-American Establishment

were directed into more fruitful and anonymous activities such as The
Times and The Round Table.

The Milner Group did not own The Times before 1922, but clearly
controlled it at least as far back as 1912. Even before this last date,
members of the innermost circle of the Milner Group were swarming
about the great newspaper. In fact, it would appear that The Times
had been controlled by the Cecil Bloc since 1884 and was taken over by
the Milner Group in the same way in which All Souls was taken over,
quietly and without a struggle. The midwife of this process apparently
was George E. Buckle (1854-1935), graduate of New College in 1876,
member of All Souls since 1877, and editor of The Times from 1884 to
1912. 2 The chief members of the Milner Group who were associated
with The Times have already been mentioned. Amery was connected
with the paper from 1899 to 1909. During this period he edited and
largely wrote the Times History of the South African War. Lord Esher
was offered a directorship in 1908. Grigg was a staff writer in
1903-1905, and head of the Imperial Department in 1908-1913. B. K.
Long was head of the Dominion Department in 1913-1921 and of the
Foreign Department in 1920-1921. Monypenny was assistant editor
both before and after the Boer War (1894-1899, 1903-1908) and on the
board of directors after the paper was incorporated (1908-1912).
Dawson was the paper's chief correspondent in South Africa in the
Selborne period (1905-1910), while Basil Williams was the reporter
covering the National Convention there (1908-1909). When it became
clear in 1911 that Buckle must soon retire, Dawson was brought into
the office in a rather vague capacity and, a year later, was made
editor. The appointment was suggested and urged by Buckle. 5 Dawson
held the position from 1912 to 1941, except for the three years
1919-1922. This interval is of some significance, for it revealed to the
Milner Group that they could not continue to control The Times
without ownership. The Cecil Bloc had controlled The Times from
1884 to 1912 without ownership, and the Milner Group had done the
same in the period 1912-1919, but, in this last year, Dawson quarreled
with Lord Northcliffe (who was chief proprietor from 1908-1922) and
left the editor's chair. As soon as the Milner Group, through the Astors,
acquired the chief proprietorship of the paper in 1922, Dawson was
restored to his post and held it for the next twenty years. Undoubtedly
the skillful stroke which acquired the ownership of The Times from the
Harmsworth estate in 1922 was engineered by Brand. During the inter-
val of three years during which Dawson was not editor, Northcliffe en-
trusted the position to one of The Time's famous foreign cor-
respondents, H. W. Steed.

Dawson was succeeded as editor in 1944 by R. M. Barrington-Ward,
whose brother was a Fellow of All Souls and son-in-law of A. L. Smith.

"The Times" / 103

Laurence Rushbrook Williams, who functions in many capacities in
Indian affairs after his fellowship in All Souls (1914-1921), also joined
the editorial staff in 1944. Douglas Jay, who graduated from New Col-
lege in 1930 and was a Fellow of All Souls in 1930-1937, was on the
staff of The Times in 1929-1933 and of the Economist in 1933-1937. He
became a Labour M. P. in 1946, after having performed the unheard-of
feat of going directly from All Souls to the city desk of the Labour
Party's Daily Herald (1937-1941). Another interesting figure on The
Times staff in the more recent period was Charles R. S. Harris, who
was a Fellow of All Souls for fifteen years (1921-1936), after graduating
from Corpus Christi. He was leader-writer of The Times for ten years
(1925-1935) and, during part of the same period, was on the staff of the
Economist (1932-1935) and editor of The Nineteenth Century and
After (1930-1935). He left all three positions in 1935 to go for four years
to the Argentine to be general manager of the Buenos Aires Great
Southern and Western Railways. During the Second World War he
joined the Ministry of Economic Warfare for a year, the Foreign Office
for two years, and the Finance Department of the War Office for a
year (1942-1943). Then he was commissioned a lieutenant colonel with
the military government in occupied Sicily, and ended up the war as a
member of the Allied Control Commission in Italy. Harris's written
works cover a range of subjects that would be regarded as extreme
anywhere outside the Milner Group. A recognized authority on Duns
Scotus, he wrote two volumes on this philosopher as well as the chapter
on "Philosophy" in The Legacy of the Middle Ages, but in 1935 he
wrote Germany's Foreign Indebtedness for the Royal Institute of Inter-
national Affairs.

Harris's literary versatility, as well as the large number of members
of All Souls who drifted over to the staff on The Times, unquestionably
can be explained by the activities of Lord Brand. Brand not only
brought these persons from All Souls to The Times, but also brought
the Astors to The Times. Brand and Lord Astor were together at New
College at the outbreak of the Boer War. They married sisters,
daughters of Chiswell Dabney Langhorne of Virginia. Brand was ap-
parently the one who brought Astor into the Milner Group in 1917,
although there had been a movement in this direction considerably
earlier. Astor was a Conservative M.P. from 1910 to 1919, leaving the
Lower House to take his father's seat in the House of Lords. His place in
Commons has been held since 1919 by his wife, Nancy Astor
(1919-1945), and by his son Michael Langhorne Astor (1945- ). In
1918 Astor became parliamentary secretary to Lloyd George; later he
held the same position with the Ministry of Food (1918-1919) and the
Ministry of Health (1919-1921). He was British delegate to the
Assembly of the League of Nations in 1931, chairman of the League

104 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Committee on Nutrition (1936-1937), and chairman of the council of
the Royal Institute of International Affairs (since 1935). With help
from various people, he wrote three books on agricultural problems:
Land and Life (1932), The Planning of Agriculture (1933), and British
Agriculture (1938). Both of his sons graduated from New College, and
both have been Members of Parliament, the older in the period
1935-1945, and the younger since 1945. The older was secretary to
Lord Lytton on the League of Nations Commission of Enquiry into the
Manchurian Episode (1932) and was parliamentary private secretary
to Sir Samuel Hoare when he was First Lord of the Admiralty and
Home Secretary (1936-1939).

Lord Astor's chief importance in regard to The Times is that he and
his brother became chief proprietors in 1922 by buying out the
Harmsworth interest. As a result, the brother, Colonel John Jacob
Astor, has been chairman of the board of The Times Publishing Com-
pany since 1922, and Brand was a director on the board for many years
before 1944. Colonel Astor, who matriculated at New College in 1937,
at the age of fifty-one, was military aide to the Viceroy of India (Lord
Hardinge) in 1911-1914, was a Member of Parliament from 1922 to
1945, and is a director of both Hambros' and Barclay's Banks.

This connection between the Milner Group and The Times was of
the greatest importance in the period up to 1945, especially in the
period just before the Munich crisis. However, the chief center of
gravity of the Milner Group was never in The Times. It is true that
Lord Astor became one of the more important figures in the Milner
Group after Milner's death in 1925, but the center of gravity of the
Group as a whole was elsewhere: before 1920, in the Round Table
Group; and after 1920, in All Souls. Lord Astor was of great impor-
tance in the later period, especially after 1930, but was of no sig-
nificance in the earlier period — an indication of his relatively recent
arrival in the Group.

The Times has recently published the first three volumes of a four-
volume history of itself. Although no indication is given as to the
authorship of these volumes, the acknowledgments show that the
authors worked closely with All Souls and the Milner Group. For exam-
ple, Harold Temperley and Keith Feiling read the proofs of the first
two volumes, while E. L. Woodward read those of the third volume.

While members of the Milner Group thus went into The Times to
control it, relatively few persons ever came into the Milner Group from
The Times. The only two who readily come to mind are Sir Arthur
Willert and Lady Lugard. 4

Arthur Willert (Sir Arthur since 1919) entered Balliol in 1901 but did
not take a degree until 1928. From 1906 to 1910 he was on the staff of

"The Times" / 105

The Times in Paris, Berlin, and Washington, and was then chief Times
correspondent in Washington for ten years (1910-1920). During this
period he was also secretary to the British War Mission in Washington
(1917-1918) and Washington representative of the Ministry of Infor-
mation. This brought him to the attention of the Milner Group, prob-
ably through Brand, and in 1921 he joined the Foreign Office as head
of the News Department. During the next fifteen years he was a
member of the British delegations to the Washington Conference of
1922, to the London Economic Conference of 1924, to the London
Naval Conference of 1930, to the World Disarmament Conference of
1932-1934, and to the League of Nations in 1929-1934. He retired from
the Foreign Office in 1935, but returned to an active life for the dura-
tion of the Second World War as head of the southern region for the
Ministry of Information (1939-1945). In 1937, in cooperation with H.
V. Hodson (then editor of The Round Table) and B. K. Long (of the
Kindergarten), he wrote a book called The Empire in the World. He
had previously written Aspects of British Foreign Policy (1928) and The
Frontiers of En gland (1935).

The second person to come into the Milner Group from The Times
was Lady Lugard (the former Flora Shaw), who was probably a
member of the Rhodes secret society on The Times and appears to have
been passing from The Times to the Milner Group, when she was really
passing from the society to the Milner Group. She and her husband are
of great significance in the latter organization, although neither was a
member of the innermost circle.

Frederick Lugard (Sir Frederick after 1901 and Lord Lugard after
1928) was a regular British army officer who served in Afghanistan, the
Sudan, and Burma in 1879-1887. In 1888 he led a successful expedition
against slave-traders on Lake Nyasa, and was subsequently employed
by the British East African Company, the Royal Niger Company, and
British West Charterland in leading expeditions into the interior of
Africa (1889-1897). In 1897 he was appointed by the Salisbury govern-
ment to be Her Majesty's Commissioner in the hinterland of Nigeria
and Lagos and commandant of the West African Frontier Force, which
he organized. Subsequently he was High Commissioner of Northern
Nigeria (1900-1906) and Governor of Hong Kong (1907-1912), as well
as Governor, and later Governor-General, of Nigeria (1912-1919). He
wrote Our East African Empire (1893) and The Dual Mandate in
British Tropical Africa (1922), and also numerous articles (including
one on West Africa in The Empire and the Century) . He was one of the
chief assistants of Lord Lothian and Lord Hailey in planning the Af-
rican Survey in 1934-1937, was British member of the Permanent Man-
dates Commission of the League of Nations from 1922 to 1936, was one

106 / The Anglo-American Establishment

of the more influential figures in the Royal Institute of International
Affairs, and is generally regarded as the inventor of the British system
of "indirect rule" in colonial areas.

Flora Shaw, who married Sir Frederick Lugard in 1902, when he
was forty-four and she was fifty, was made head of the Colonial
Department of The Times in 1890, at the suggestion of Sir Robert
George Wyndham Herbert, the Permanent Under Secretary of the Co-
lonial Office. Sir Robert, whose grandmother was a Wyndham and
whose grandfather was Earl of Carnarvon, was a Fellow of All Souls
from 1854 to 1905. He was thus elected the year following Lord
Salisbury's election. He began his political career as private secretary to
Gladstone and was Permanent Under Secretary for twenty-one years
(1871-1892, 1900). He was subsequently Agent General for Tasmania
(1893-1896), High Sheriff of London, chairman of the Tariff Commis-
sion, and adviser to the Sultan of Johore, all under the Salisbury-
Balfour governments.

When Miss Shaw was recommended to The Times as head of the
Colonial Department, she was already a close friend of Moberly Bell,
manager of The Times, and was an agent and close friend of Stead and
Cecil Rhodes. The story of how she came to work for The Times, as
told in that paper's official history, is simplicity itself: Bell wanted
someone to head the Colonial Department, so he wrote to Sir Robert
Herbert and was given the name of Flora Shaw. Accordingly, Bell
wrote, "as a complete stranger," to Miss Shaw and asked her "as an in-
experienced writer for a specimen column." She wrote a sample article
on Egyptian finance, which pleased Bell so greatly that she was given
the position of head of the Colonial Department. That is the story as it
appears in volume III of The History of The Times, published in 1947.
Shortly afterward appeared the biography of Flora Shaw, written by
the daughter of Moberly Bell and based on his private papers. The
story that emerges from this volume is quite different. It goes
somewhat as follows:

Flora Shaw, like most members of that part of the Cecil Bloc which
shifted over to the Milner Group, was a disciple of John Ruskin and an
ardent worker among the depressed masses of London's slums.
Through Ruskin, she came to write for W. T. Stead of the Pall Mall
Gazette in 1886, and three years later, through Stead, she met Cecil
Rhodes. In the meantime, in 1888, she went to Egypt as correspondent
of the Pall Mall Gazette and there became a close friend of Moberly
Bell, The Times correspondent in that country. Bell had been
employed in this capacity in Egypt since 1865 and had become a close
friend of Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer), the British agent in Egypt. He
had also become an expert on Egyptian finance and published a pam-
phlet on that subject in 1887. Miss Shaw's friendship with the Bell

"The Times" / 107

family was so close that she was practically a member of it, and Bell's
children knew her, then and later, as "Aunt Flora."

In 1890, when Bell was transferred to Printing House Square as
manager of The Times, Baring tried to persuade The Times to name
Miss Shaw as Egyptian correspondent in Bell's place. This was not
done. Instead, Miss Shaw returned to London and was introduced by
Bell to Buckle. When Buckle told Miss Shaw that he wanted a head for
the Colonial Department of the paper, she suggested that he consult
with Sir Robert Herbert. From that point on, the account in The
History of The Times is accurate. But it is clear, to anyone who has the
information just mentioned, that the recommendation by Sir Robert
Herbert, the test article on Egyptian finance, and probably the article
itself, had been arranged previously between Moberly Bell and "Aunt
Flora."

None of these early relationships of Miss Shaw with Bell, Buckle, and
Herbert are mentioned in The History of The Times, and apparently
they are not to be found in the records at Printing House Square. They
are, however, a significant indication of the methods of the Milner
Group. It is not clear what was the purpose of this elaborate scheme.
Miss Moberly Bell apparently believes that it was to deceive Buckle. It
is much more likely that it was to deceive the chief owners of The
Times, John Walter III and his son, Arthur F. Walter.

Miss Shaw, when she came to The Times, was an open champion of
Lord Salisbury and an active supporter of a vigorous imperial policy,
especially in South Africa. She was in the confidence of the Colonial
Office and of Rhodes to a degree that cannot be exaggerated. She met
Rhodes, on Stead's recommendation, in 1889, at a time when Stead
was one of Rhodes's closest confidants. In 1892, Miss Shaw was sent to
South Africa by Moberly Bell, with instructions to set up two lines of
communication from that area to herself. One of these was to be
known to The Times and would handle routine matters; the second
was to be known only to herself and was to bring confidential material
to her private address. The expenses of both of these avenues would be
paid for by The Times, but the expenses of the secret avenue would not
appear on the records at Printing House Square. 5

From this date onward, Miss Shaw was in secret communication
with Cecil Rhodes. This communication was so close that she was in-
formed by Rhodes of the plot which led up to the Jameson Raid,
months before the raid took place. She was notified by Rhodes of the
approximate date on which the raid would occur, two weeks before it
did occur. She even suggested on several occasions that the plans be ex-
ecuted more rapidly, and on one occasion suggested a specific date for
the event.

In her news articles, Miss Shaw embraced the cause of the British in

108 / The Anglo-American Establishment

the Transvaal even to the extent of exaggerating and falsifying their
hardships under Boer rule. 6 It was The Times that published as an ex-
clusive feature the famous (and fraudulent) "women and children" let-
ter, dated 20 December 1895, which pretended to be an appeal for help
from the persecuted British in the Transvaal to Dr. Jameson's waiting
forces, but which had really been concocted by Dr. Jameson himself on
20 November and sent to Miss Shaw a month later. This letter was
published by The Times as soon as news of the Jameson' Raid was
known, as a justification of the act. The Times continued to defend and
justify the raid and Jameson. After this became a rather delicate
policy — that is, after the raid failed and had to be disavowed — The
Times was saved from the necessity of reversing itself by the "Kruger
telegram" sent by the German Kaiser to congratulate the Boers on their
successful suppression of the raiders. This "Kruger telegram" was
played up by The Times with such vigor that Jameson was largely
eclipsed and the incident assumed the dimensions of an international
crisis. As the official History of The Times puts it, "The Times was car-
ried so far by indignation against the outrageous interference of the
Kaiser in the affairs of the British Empire that it was able to overlook
the criminality of Jameson's act." A little later, the same account says,
"On January 7, Rhodes' resignation from the Premiership was an-
nounced, while the Editor found it more convenient to devote his
leading article to the familiar topic of German interference rather than
to the consequences of the Raid." 7

All of this was being done on direct instructions from Rhodes, and
with the knowledge and approval of the management of The Times. In
fact, Miss Shaw was the intermediary between Rhodes, The Times,
and the Colonial Office (Joseph Chamberlain). Until the end of
November 1895, her instructions from Rhodes came to her through his
agent in London, Dr. Rutherfoord Harris, but, when the good Dr.
Harris and Alfred Beit returned to South Africa in order to be on hand
for the anticipated excitement, the former gave Miss Shaw the secret
code of the British South Africa Company and the cable address Tele-
mones London, so that communications from Rhodes to Miss Shaw
could be sent directly. Dr. Harris had already informed Rhodes by a
cable of 4 November 1895: if you can telegraph course you wish

TIMES TO ADOPT NOW WITH REGARD TO TRANSVAAL FLORA WILL ACT.

On 10 December 1895, Miss Shaw cabled Rhodes: can you advise

WHEN WILL YOU COMMENCE THE PLANS, WE WISH TO SEND AT EARLIEST
OPPORTUNITY SEALED INSTRUCTIONS REPRESENTATIVE OF THE LONr/TIMES
EUROPEAN CAPITALS; IT IS MOST IMPORTANT USING THEIR INFLUENCE IN

your favor. The use of the word "we" in this message disposes once and
for all of Miss Shaw's later defense that all her acts were done on her
own private responsibility and not in her capacity as a department

"The Times" / 109

head of The Times. In answer to this request, Rhodes replied the next
day: we do think about new year. This answer made The Times's
manager "very depressed," so the next day (12 December) Miss Shaw
sent the following cable to Rhodes: delay dangerous sympathy now

COMPLETE BUT WILL DEPEND VERY MUCH UPON ACTION BEFORE EUROPEAN
POWERS GIVEN TIME ENTER A PROTEST WHICH AS EUROPEAN SITUATION CON-
SIDERED serious might paralyse government. Five days after this came
another cable, which said in part: chamberlain sound in case of in-
terference EUROPEAN POWERS BUT HAVE SPECIAL REASON TO BELIEVE

wishes you must do it immediately. To these very incriminating
messages might be added two of several wires from Rhodes to Miss
Shaw. One of 30 December 1895, after Rhodes knew that the Jameson
Raid had begun and after Miss Shaw had been so informed by secret
code, stated: inform chamberlain that i shall get through all

RIGHT IF HE SUPPORTS ME, BUT HE MUST NOT SEND CABLE LIKE HE SENT
HIGH COMMISSIONER IN SOUTH AFRICA. TODAY THE CRUX IS, I WILL WIN
AND SOUTH AFRICA WILL BELONG TO ENGLAND. And the following day,

when the outcome of the raid was doubtful because of the failure of the
English in the Transvaal to rise against the Boers — a failure resulting
from the fact that they were not as ill-treated as Miss Shaw, through
The Times, had been telling the world for months — Rhodes cabled:

UNLESS YOU CAN MAKE CHAMBERLAIN INSTRUCT THE HIGH COMMISSIONER
TO PROCEED AT ONCE TO JOHANNESBURG THE WHOLE POSITION IS LOST.
HIGH COMMISSIONER WOULD RECEIVE SPLENDID RECEPTION AND STILL TURN
POSITION TO ENGLAND ADVANTAGE BUT MUST BE INSTRUCTED BY CABLE IM-
MEDIATELY. THE INSTRUCTIONS MUST BE SPECIFIC AS HE IS WEAK AND WILL

take no responsibility. 8 When we realize that the anticipated upris-
ing of the English in the Transvaal had been financed and armed with
munitions from the funds of the British South Africa Company, it is
clear that we must wait until Hitler's coup in Austria in March 1938 to
find a parallel to Rhodes's and Jameson's attempted coup in South
Africa forty-two years earlier.

The Jameson Raid, if the full story could ever be told, would give the
finest possible example of the machinations of Rhodes's secret society.
Another example, almost as good, would be the completely untold
story of how the society covered up these activities in the face of the in-
vestigation of the Parliamentary Select Committee. The dangers from
this investigation were so great that even Lord Rothschild was pressed
into service as a messenger. It was obvious from the beginning that the
star witness before the committee would be Cecil Rhodes and that the
chief danger would be the incrimination of Joseph Chamberlain, who
clearly knew of the plot. Milner, Garrett, Stead, and Esher discussed
possible defenses and reached no conclusion, since Stead wanted to ad-
mit that Chamberlain was implicated in plans for a raid but not plans

110 / The Anglo-American Establishment

for the raid. By this, Stead meant that Chamberlain and Rhodes had
seen the possibility of an uprising in the Transvaal and, solely as a
precautionary measure, had made the preparations for Jameson's force
so that it would be available to go to Johannesburg to restore order.
The others refused to accept this strategy and insisted on the advan-
tages of a general and blanket denial. This difference of opinion
probably arose from the fact that Stead did not know that the prospec-
tive rebels in Johannesburg were armed and financed by Rhodes, were
led by Rhodes 's brother and Abe Bailey, and had written the "women
and children" message, in collaboration with Jameson, weeks before.
These facts, if revealed to the committee, would make it impossible to
distinguish between "the raid" and "a raid." The event of 31 December
1895, which the committee was investigating, was the former and not
the latter merely because the plotters in Johannesburg failed to revolt
on schedule. This is clear from Edward Cook's statement, in his
biography of Garrett, that Garrett expected to receive news of a
revolution in Johannesburg at any moment on 30 December 1895. 9

The difficulty which the initiates in London had in preparing a
defense for the Select Committee was complicated by the fact that they
were not able to reach Rhodes, who was en route from South Africa
with Garrett. As soon as the boat docked, Brett (Lord Esher) sent "Nat-
ty" Rothschild from London with a message from Chamberlain to
Rhodes. When Rothschild returned, Brett called in Stead, and they
discussed the projected defense. Stead had already seen Rhodes and
given his advice. 10 The following day (5 February 1896), Brett saw
Rhodes and found that he was prepared to confess everything. Brett
tried to dissuade him. As he wrote in his Journal, "I pointed out to him
that there was one consideration which appeared to have escaped him,
that was the position of Mr. Chamberlain, the Secretary of State.
Chamberlain was obviously anxious to help and it would not do to em-
barrass him or to tie his hands. It appeared to me to be prudent to
endeavour to ascertain how Chamberlain would receive a confidence
of this kind. I said I would try to find out. On leaving me he said, 'Wish
we could get our secret society.' " Brett went to Chamberlain, who
refused to receive Rhodes's confession, lest he have to order the law of-
ficers to take proceedings against Rhodes as against Jameson. Ac-
cordingly, the view of the majority, a general denial, was adopted and
proved successful, thanks to the leniency of the members of the Select
Committee. Brett recognized this leniency. He wrote to Stead on 19
February 1897: "I came up with Milner from Windsor this morning.
He has a heavy job; and has to start de novo. The committee will leave
few of the old gang on their legs. Alas. Rhodes was a pitiful object.
Harcourt very sorry for him; too sorry to press his question home. Why
did Rhodes try to shuffle after all we had told him?""

"The Times" / 111

It is clear that the Select Committee made no real effort to uncover
the real relationships between the conspirators, The Times, and the
Salisbury government. When witnesses refused to produce documents
or to answer questions, the committee did not insist, and whole fields
of inquiry were excluded from examination by the committee.

One of these fields, and probably the most important one, was the
internal policies and administration of The Times itself. As a result,
when Campbell-Bannerman, an opposition leader, asked if it were
usual practice for The Times correspondents to be used to propagate
certain policies in foreign countries as well as to obtain information,
Miss Shaw answered that she had been excused from answering ques-
tions about the internal administration of The Times. We now know,
as a result of the publication of the official History of The Times, that
all Miss Shaw's acts were done in consultation with the manager,
Moberly Bell. 12 The vital telegrams to Rhodes, signed by Miss Shaw,
were really drafted by Bell. As The History of The Times puts it, "Bell
had taken the risk of allowing Miss Shaw to commit The Times to the
support of Rhodes in a conspiracy that was bound to lead to contro-
versy at home, if it succeeded, and likely to lead to prosecution if it
failed. The conspiracy had failed; the prosecution had resulted. Bell's
only salvation lay in Miss Shaw's willingness to take personal respon-
sibility for the telegrams and in her ability to convince the Committee
accordingly." And, as the evidence of the same source shows, in order
to convince the committee it was necessary for Miss Shaw to commit
perjury, even though the representatives of both parties on the Com-
mittee of Enquiry (except Labouchere) were making every effort to
conceal the real facts while still providing the public with a good show.

Before leaving the discussion of Miss Shaw and the Jameson Raid, it
might be fitting to introduce testimony from a somewhat unreliable
witness, Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, a member by breeding and education
of this social group and a relative of the Wyndhams, but a
psychopathic anti-imperialist who spent his life praising and imitating
the Arabs and criticizing Britain's conduct in India, Egypt, and
Ireland. In his diaries, under the date 25 April 1896, he says: "[George
Wyndham] has been seeing much of Jameson, whom he likes, and of
the gang that have been running the Transvaal business, about a dozen
of them, with Buckle, The Times editor, and Miss Flora Shaw, who, he
told me confidentially, is really the prime mover in the whole thing,
and who takes the lead in all their private meetings, a very clever
middle-aged woman." 13 A somewhat similar conclusion was reached
by W. T. Stead in a pamphlet called Joseph Chamberlain: Conspirator
or Statesman, which he published from the office of The Review of
Reviews in 1900. Stead was convinced that Miss Shaw was the in-
termediary among Rhodes, The Times, and the Colonial Office. And

112 / The Anglo- American Establishment

Stead was Rhodes's closest confidant in England.

As a result of this publicity, Miss Shaw's value to The Times was un-
doubtedly reduced, and she gave up her position after her marriage in
1902. In the meantime, however, she had been in correspondence with
Milner as early as 1899, and in December 1901 made a trip to South
Africa for The Times, during which she had long interviews with
Milner, Monypenny, and the members of the Kindergarten. After her
resignation, she continued to review books for The Times Literary Sup-
plement, wrote an article on tropical dependencies for The Empire and
the Century, wrote two chapters for Amery's History of the South
African War, and wrote a biographical sketch of Cecil Rhodes for the
eleventh edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

A third member of this same type was Valentine Chirol (Sir Valen-
tine after 1912). Educated at the Sorbonne, he was a clerk in the
Foreign Office for four years (1872-1876) and then traveled about the
world, but chiefly in the Near East, for sixteen years (1876-1892). In
1892 he was made The Times correspondent in Berlin, and for the next
four years filled the role of a second British ambassador, with free
access to the Foreign Ministry in Berlin and functioning as a channel of
unofficial communication between the government in London and
that in Berlin. After 1895 he became increasingly anti-German, like all
members of the Cecil Bloc and the Milner Group, and was chiefly
responsible for the great storm whipped up over the "Kruger tel-
egram." In this last connection he even went so far as to announce in
The Times that the Germans were really using the Jameson episode as
part of a long-range project to drive Britain out of South Africa and
that the next step in that process was to be the dispatch in the
immediate future of a German expeditionary force to Delagoa Bay in
Portuguese Angola. As a result of this attitude, Chirol found the doors
of the Foreign Ministry closed to him and, after another unfruitful year
in Berlin, was brought to London to take charge of the Foreign Depart-
ment of The Times. He held this post for fifteen years (1897-1912),
during which he was one of the most influential figures in the forma-
tion of British foreign and imperial policy. The policy he supported
was the policy that was carried out, and included support for the Boer
War, the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, the Entente Cordiale, the agree-
ment of 1907 with Russia, the Morley-Minto Reforms in India, and the
increasing resistance to Germany. When he retired in 1912, he was
knighted by Asquith for his important contributions to the Morley-
Minto Reforms of 1909 and was made a member of the Royal Commis-
sion on Public Services in India (1912-1914). He remained in India
during most of the First World War, and, indeed, made seventeen
visits to that country in his life. In 1916 he was one of the five chief
advisers to Lionel Curtis in the preparatory work for the Government

"The Times" / 113

of India Act of 1919 (the other four being Lord Chelmsford, Meston,
Marris, and Hailey). Later Chirol wrote articles for The Round Table
and was a member of the British delegation at the Paris Peace
Conference.

Chirol was replaced as head of the Foreign Department during his
long absences from London by Leopold Amery. It was expected that
Amery would be Chirol's successor in the post, but Amery entered upon
a political career in 1910, so the position was given briefly to Dudley
Disraeli Braham. Braham, a former classmate of many of the Kinder-
garten at New College, was a foreign correspondent of The Times for
ten years (1897-1907) and Chirol's assistant for five (1907-1912), before
he became Chirol's successor in the Foreign Department and Grigg's
successor in the Imperial Department, thus combining the two. He
resigned from The Times in 1914 to become editor of the Daily Tel-
egraph in Sydney, Australia, and was subsequently a very important
figure in Australian newspaper life.

This account, by no means complete, shows clearly that the Milner
Group controlled The Times, indirectly from 1912 if not earlier, and
directly from 1922. The importance of this control should be obvious.
The Times, although of a very limited circulation (only about 35,000 at
the beginning of the century, 50,000 at the outbreak of the First World
War, and 187,000 in 1936), was the most influential paper in England.
The reason for this influence is not generally recognized, although the
existence of the condition itself is widely known. The influence de-
pended upon the close relationship between the paper and the Foreign
Office. This relationship, as we are trying to show, was the result of the
Milner Group's influence in both.

This influence was not exercised by acting directly on public opin-
ion, since the Milner Group never intended to influence events by
acting through any instruments of mass propaganda, but rather hoped
to work on the opinions of the small group of "important people," who
in turn could influence wider and wider circles of persons. This was
the basis on which the Milner Group itself was constructed; it was the
theory behind the Rhodes Scholarships; it was the theory behind "The
Round Table and the Royal Institute of International Affairs; it was
the theory behind the efforts to control All Souls, New College, and
Balliol and, through these three, to control Oxford University; and it
was the theory behind The Times. No effort was made to win a large
circulation for The Times, for, in order to obtain such a circulation, it
would have been necessary to make changes in the tone of the paper
that would have reduced its influence with the elite, to which it had
been so long directed. The theory of "the elite" was accepted by the
Milner Group and by The Times, as it was by Rhodes. The historian of
The Times recognizes this and, after describing the departure from

114 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Printing House Square of Bell, Chirol, and Buckle, says, "It is a valid
criticism of the 'Old Gang' that they had not realized that they were in
the habit of valuing news according to the demands and interests of a
governing class too narrowly defined for the twentieth century." It was
on this issue that the "Old Gang" disputed with Northcliffe in the
period 1908-1912 and that Dawson disputed with Northcliffe in 1919.
Although the new owner protested to all who would listen, in 1908 and
later, that he would not try to make The Times into a popular paper,
he was, as The History of The Times shows, incapable of judging the
merits of a newspaper by any other standard than the size of its circula-
tion. After he was replaced as chief proprietor by Astor, and Dawson
reoccupied the editor's chair, the old point of view was reestablished.
The Times was to be a paper for the people who are influential, and
not for the masses. The Times was influential, but the degree of its in-
fluence would never be realized by anyone who examined only the
paper itself. The greater part of its influence arose from its position as
one of several branches of a single group, the Milner Group. By the in-
teraction of these various branches on one another, under the pretense
that each branch was an autonomous power, the influence of each
branch was increased through a process of mutual reinforcement. The
unanimity among the various branches was believed by the outside
world to be the result of the influence of a single Truth, while really it
was the result of the existence of a single group. Thus, a statesman (a
member of the Group) announces a policy. About the same time, the
Royal Institute of International Affairs publishes a study on the sub-
ject, and an Oxford don, a Fellow of All Souls (and a member of the
Group) also publishes a volume on the subject (probably through a
publishing house, like G. Bell and Sons or Faber and Faber, allied to
the Group) . The statesman's policy is subjected to critical analysis and
final approval in a "leader" in The Times, while the two books are
reviewed (in a single review) in The Times Literary Supplement. Both
the "leader" and the review are anonymous but are written by
members of the Group. And finally, at about the same time, an
anonymous article in The Round Table strongly advocates the same
policy. The cumulative effect of such tactics as this, even if each tac-
tical move influences only a small number of important people, is
bound to be great. If necessary, the strategy can be carried further, by
arranging for the secretary to the Rhodes Trustees to go to America for
a series of "informal discussions" with former Rhodes Scholars, while a
prominent retired statesman (possibly a former Viceroy of India) is per-
suaded to say a few words at the unveiling of a plaque in All Souls or
New College in honor of some deceased Warden. By a curious coin-
cidence, both the "informal discussions" in America and the unveiling
speech at Oxford touch on the same topical subject.

"The Times" / 115

An analogous procedure in reverse could be used for policies or books
which the Group did not approve. A cutting editorial or an unfriendly
book review, followed by a suffocating blanket of silence and neglect,
was the best that such an offering could expect from the instruments of
the Milner Group. This is not easy to demonstrate because of the policy
of anonymity followed by writers and reviewers in The Times, The
Round Table, and The Times Literary Supplement, but enough cases
have been found to justify this statement. When J. A. Farrer's book
England under Edward VII was published in 1922 and maintained
that the British press, especially The Times, was responsible for bad
Anglo-German feeling before 1909, The Times Literary Supplement
gave it to J. W. Headlam-Morley to review. And when Baron von
Eckardstein, who was in the German Embassy in London at the time
of the Boer War, published his memoirs in 1920, the same journal gave
the book to Chirol to review, even though Chirol was an interested
party and was dealt with in a critical fashion in several passages in the
book itself. Both of these reviews were anonymous.

There is no effort here to contend that the Milner Group ever falsi-
fied or even concealed evidence (although this charge could be made
against The Times). Rather it propagated its point of view by inter-
pretation and selection of evidence. In this fashion it directed policy in
ways that were sometimes disastrous. The Group as a whole was made
up of intelligent men who believed sincerely, and usually in-
tensely, in what they advocated, and who knew that their writings
were intended for a small minority as intelligent as themselves. In such
conditions there could be no value in distorting or concealing evidence.
To do so would discredit the instruments they controlled. By giving the
facts as they stood, and as completely as could be done in consistency
with the interpretation desired, a picture could be construed that
would remain convincing for a long time.

This is what was done by The Times. Even today, the official
historian of The Times is unable to see that the policy of that paper was
anti-German from 1895 to 1914 and as such contributed to the worsen-
ing of Anglo-German relations and thus to the First World War. This
charge has been made by German and American students, some of
them of the greatest diligence and integrity, such as Professors Sidney
B. Fay, William L. Langer, Oron J. Hale, and others. The recent
History of The Times devotes considerable space and obviously spent
long hours of research in refuting these charges, and fails to see that it
has not succeeded. With the usual honesty and industry of the Milner
Group, the historian gives the evidence that will convict him, without
seeing that his interpretation will not hold water. He confesses that the
various correspondents of The Times in Berlin played up all anti-
English actions and statements and played down all pro-English ones;

116 / The Anglo-American Establishment

that they quoted obscure and locally discredited papers in order to do
this; that all The Times foreign correspondents in Berlin, Paris,
Vienna, and elsewhere were anti-German, and that these were the
ones who were kept on the staff and promoted to better positions; that
the one member of the staff who was recognized as being fair to Ger-
many (and who was unquestionably the most able man in the whole
Times organization), Donald Mackenzie Wallace, was removed as
head of the Foreign Department and shunted off to be editor of the
supplementary volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica (which was
controlled by The Times); and that The Times frequently printed un-
true or distorted information on Germany. All of this is admitted and
excused as the work of honest, if hasty, journalists, and the crowning
proof that The Times was not guilty as charged is implied to be the fact
that the Germans did ultimately get into a war with Britain, thus prov-
ing at one stroke that they were a bad lot and that the attitude of The
Times staff toward them was justified by the event.

It did not occur to the historian of The Times that there exists
another explanation of Anglo-German relations, namely that in 1895
there were two Germanies — the one admiring Britain and the other
hating Britain — and that Britain, by her cold-blooded and calculated
assault on the Boers in 1895 and 1899, gave the second (and worse)
Germany the opportunity to criticize and attack Britain and gave it the
arguments with which to justify a German effort to build up naval
defenses. The Times, by quoting these attacks and actions represen-
tative of the real attitude and actual intentions of all Germans, misled
the British people and abandoned the good Germans to a hopeless
minority position, where to be progressive, peaceful, or Anglophile was
to be a traitor to Germany itself. Chirol's alienation of Baron von
Eckardstein (one of the "good" Germans, married to an English lady),
in a conversation in February 1900, l4 shows exactly how The Times at-
titude was contributing to consolidate and alienate the Germans by the
mere fact of insisting that they were consolidated and alienated — and
doing this to a man who loved England and hated the reactionary
elements in Germany more than Chirol ever did.

'The Round Table"

The second important propaganda effort of the Milner Group in the
period after 1909 was The Round Table. This was part of an effort by
the circle of the Milner Group to accomplish for the whole Empire
what they had just done for South Africa. The leaders were Philip Kerr
in London, as secretary of the London group, and Lionel Curtis
throughout the world, as organizing secretary for the whole move-
ment, but most of the members of the Kindergarten cooperated in the
project. The plan of procedure was the same as that which had worked
so successfully in South Africa — that is, to form local groups of influen-
tial men to agitate for imperial federation and to keep in touch with
these groups by correspondence and by the circulation of a periodical.
As in South Africa, the original cost of the periodical was paid by Abe
Bailey. This journal, issued quarterly, was called The Round Table,
and the same name was applied to the local groups.

Of these local groups, the most important by far was the one in Lon-
don. In this, Kerr and Brand were the chief figures. The other local
groups, also called Round Tables, were set up by Lionel Curtis and
others in South Africa, in Canada, in New Zealand, in Australia, and,
in a rather rudimentary fashion and somewhat later, in India.

The reasons for doing this were described by Curtis himself in 1917
in A Letter to the People of India, as follows: "We feared that South
Africa might abstain from a future war with Germany, on the grounds
that they had not participated in the decision to make war. . . . Con-
fronted by this dilemma at the very moment of attaining Dominion
self-government, we thought it would be wise to ask people in the
oldest and most experienced of all Dominions what they thought of the
matter. So in 1909, Mr. Kerr and I went to Canada and persuaded Mr.
Marris, who was then on leave, to accompany us."'

On this trip the three young men covered a good portion of the
Dominion. One day, during a walk through the forests on the Pacific
slopes of the Canadian Rockies, Marris convinced Curtis that "self-

117

118 / The Anglo-American Establishment

government, . . . however far distant, was the only intelligble goal of
British policy in India. . . . The existence of political unrest in India,
far from being a reason for pessimism, was the surest sign that the
British, with all their manifest failings, had not shirked their primary
duty of extending Western education to India and so preparing Indians
to govern themselves." "I have since looked back on this walk," wrote
Curtis, "as one of the milestones of my own education. So far I had
thought of self-government as a Western institution, which was and
would always remain peculiar to the peoples of Europe. ... It was
from that moment that I first began to think of 'the Government of
each by each and of all by all' not merely as a principle of Western life,
but rather of all human life, as the goal to which all human societies
must tend. It was from that moment that I began to think of the British
Commonwealth as the greatest instrument ever devised for enabling
that principle to be realized, not merely for the children of Europe, but
for all races and kindreds and peoples and tongues. And it is for that
reason that I have ceased to speak of the British Empire and called the
book in which I published my views The Commonwealth of Nations."

Because of Curtis's position and future influence, this walk in
Canada was important not only in his personal life but also in the
future history of the British Empire. It needs only to be pointed out
that India received complete self-government in 1947 and the British
Commonwealth changed its name officially to Commonwealth of Na-
tions in 1948. There can be no doubt that both of these events resulted
in no small degree from the influence of Lionel Curtis and the Milner
Group, in which he was a major figure.

Curtis and his friends stayed in Canada for four months. Then Cur-
tis returned to South Africa for the closing session of the Transvaal
Legislative Council, of which he was a member. He there drafted a
memorandum on the whole question of imperial relations, and, on the
day that the Union of South Africa came into existence, he sailed to
New Zealand to set up study groups to examine the question. These
groups became the Round Table Groups of New Zealand. 2

The memorandum was printed with blank sheets for written com-
ments opposite the text. Each student was to note his criticisms on these
blank pages. Then they were to meet in their study groups to discuss
these comments, in the hope of being able to draw up joint reports, or
at least majority and minority reports, on their conclusions. These
reports were to be sent to Curtis, who was to compile a comprehensive
report on the whole imperial problem. This comprehensive report
would then be submitted to the groups in the same fashion and the
resulting comments used as a basis for a final report.

Five study groups of this type were set up in New Zealand, and then
five more in Australia. 3 The decision was made to do the same thing in

"The Round Table" / 119

Canada and in England, and this was done by Curtis, Kerr, and ap-
parently Dove during 1910. On the trip to Canada, the missionaries
carried with them a letter from Milner to his old friend Arthur J.
Glazebrook, with whom he had remained in close contact throughout
the years since Glazebrook went to Canada for an English bank in
1893. The Round Table in 1941, writing of Glazebrook, said, "His
great political hero was his friend Lord Milner, with whom he kept up
a regular correspondence." As a result of this letter from Milner,
Glazebrook undertook the task of founding Round Table Groups in
Canada and did this so well that he was for twenty years or more the
real head of the network of Milner Group units in the Dominion. He
regularly wrote the Canadian articles in The Round Table magazine.
When he died, in 1940, The Round Table obituary spoke of him as
"one of the most devoted and loyal friends that The Round Table has
ever known. Indeed he could fairly claim to be one of its founding
fathers." In the 1930s he relinquished his central position in the Cana-
dian branch of the Milner Group to Vincent Massey, son-in-law of
George Parkin. Glazebrook's admiration for Parkin was so great that
he named his son George Parkin de Twenebrokes Glazebrook. 4 At the
present time Vincent Massey and G. P. de T. Glazebrook are ap-
parently the heads of the Milner Group organization in Canada,
having inherited the position from the latter's father. Both are
graduates of Balliol, Massey in 1913 and Glazebrook in 1924. Massey, a
member of a very wealthy Canadian family, was lecturer in modern
history at Toronto University in 1913-1915, and then served, during
the war effort, as a staff officer in Canada, as associate secretary of the
Canadian Cabinet's War Committee, and as secretary and director of
the Government Repatriation Committee. Later he was Minister
without Portfolio in the Canadian Cabinet (1924), a member of the
Canadian delegation to the Imperial Conference of 1926, and first
Canadian Minister to the United States (1926-1930). He was president
of the National Liberal Federation of Canada in 1932-1935, Canadian
High Commissioner in London in 1935-1946, and Canadian delegate
to the Assembly of the League of Nations in 1936. He has been for a
long time governor of the University of Toronto and of Upper Canada
College (Parkin's old school). He remains to this day one of the
strongest supporters of Oxford University and of a policy of close Cana-
dian cooperation with the United Kingdom.

G. P. de T. Glazebrook, son of Milner 's old friend Arthur J.
Glazebrook and namesake of Milner's closest collaborator in the
Rhodes Trust, was born in 1900 and studied at Upper Canada College,
the University of Toronto, and Balliol. Since 1924 he has been teaching
history at Toronto University, but since 1942 has been on leave to the
Dominion government, engaged in strategic intelligence work with the

120 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Department of External Affairs. Since 1948 he has been on loan from
the Department of External Affairs to the Department of Defense,
where he is acting as head of the new Joint Services Intelligence. This
highly secret agency appears to be the Canadian equivalent to the
American Central Intelligence Agency. Glazebrook has written a
number of historical works, including a History of Transportation in
Canada (1938), Canadian External Affairs, a Historical Study to 1914
(1942), and Canada at the Peace Conference (1942).

It was, as we have said, George Parkin Glazebrook's father who,
acting in cooperation with Curtis, Kerr, and Marris and on instructions
from Milner, set up the Round Table organization in Canada in 1911.
About a dozen units were established in various cities.

It was during the effort to extend the Round Table organization to
Australia that Curtis first met Lord Chelmsford. He was later Viceroy
of India (in 1916-1921), and there can be little doubt that the Milner
Group was influential in this appointment, for Curtis discussed the
plans which eventually became the Government of India Act of 1919
with him before he went to India and consulted with him in India on
the same subject in 1916. 5

From 1911 to 1913, Curtis remained in England, devoting himself to
the reports coming in from the Round Table Groups on imperial
organization, while Kerr devoted himself to the publication of The
Round Table itself. This was an extraordinary magazine. The first issue
appeared with the date 15 November 1910. It had no names in the
whole issue, either of the officers or of the contributors of the five ar-
ticles. The opening statement of policy was unsigned, and the only ad-
dress to which communications could be sent was "The Secretary, 175
Piccadilly, London, W." This anonymity has been maintained ever
since, and has been defended by the journal itself in advertisements, on
the grounds that anonymity gives the contributors greater in-
dependence and freedom. The real reasons, however, were much more
practical than this and included the fact that the writers were virtually
unknown and were so few in numbers, at first at least, as to make the
project appear ridiculous had the articles been signed. For example,
Philip Kerr, during his editorship, always wrote the leading article in
every issue. In later years the anonymity was necessary because of the
political prominence of some of the contributors. In general, the policy
of the journal has been such that it has continued to conceal the iden-
tity of its writers until their deaths. Even then, they have never been
connected with any specific article, except in the case of one article (the
first one in the first issue) by Lord Lothian. This article was reprinted
in The Round Table after the author's death in 1940.

The Round Table was essentially the propaganda vehicle of a hand-
ful of people and could not have carried signed articles either origi-

"The Round Table" / 121

nally, when they were too few, or later, when they were too famous. It
was never intended to be either a popular magazine or self-supporting,
but rather was aimed at influencing those in a position to influence
public opinion. As Curtis wrote in 1920, "A large quarterly like The
Round Table is not intended so much for the average reader, as for
those who write for the average reader. It is meant to be a storehouse of
information of all kinds upon which publicists can draw. Its articles
must be taken on their merits and as representing nothing beyond the
minds and information of the individual writer of each." 6

It is perhaps worth mentioning that the first article of the first issue,
called "Anglo-German Rivalry," was very anti-German and forms an
interesting bit of evidence when taken in connection with Curtis 's
statement that the problem of the Empire was raised in 1909 by the
problem of what role South Africa would play in a future war with
Germany. The Group, in the period before 1914, were clearly anti-
German. This must be emphasized because of the mistaken idea which
circulated after 1930 that the Cliveden group, especially men like Lord
Lothian, were pro-German. They were neither anti-German in 1910
nor pro-German in 1938, but pro-Empire all the time, changing there
their attitudes on other problems as these problems affected the Em-
pire. And it should be realized that their love for the Empire was not
mere jingoism or flag-waving (things at which Kerr mocked within the
Group) 7 but was based on the sincere belief that freedom, civilization,
and human decency could best be advanced through the instrumen-
tality of the British Empire.

In view of the specific and practical purpose of The Round
Table — to federate the Empire in order to ensure that the Dominions
would join with the United Kingdom in a future war with Ger-
many—the paper could not help being a propagandist organ, propa-
gandist on a high level, it is true, but nonetheless a journal of
opinion rather than a journal of information. Every general article in
the paper (excluding the reports from representatives in the Do-
minions) was really an editorial — an unsigned editorial speaking for
the group as a whole. By the 1920s these articles were declaring, in true
editorial style, that "The Round Table does not approve of" something
or other, or, "It seems to The Round Table that" something else.

Later the members of the Group denied that the Group were con-
cerned with the propagation of any single point of view. Instead, they
insisted that the purpose of the Group was to bring together persons of
various points of view for purposes of self-education. This is not quite
accurate. The Group did not contain persons of various points of view
but rather persons of unusual unaminity of opinion, especially in
regard to goals. There was a somewhat greater divergence in regard to
methods, and the circulating of memoranda within the Group to evoke

122 / The Anglo-American Establishment

various comments was for the purpose of reaching some agreement on
methods only — the goals being already given. In this, meetings of the
Group were rather like the meetings of the British Cabinet, although
any normal Cabinet would contain a greater variety of opinion than
did the usual meetings of the Group. In general, an expression of
opinion by any one member of the Group sounded like an echo of any
of the others. Their systems of values were identical; the position of the
British Commonwealth at the apex of that system was almost ax-
iomatic; the important role played by moral and ideological influences
in the Commonwealth and in the value system was accepted by all; the
necessity of strengthening the bonds of the Commonwealth in view of
the approaching crisis of the civilization of the West was accepted by
all; so also was the need for closer union with the United States. There
was considerable divergence of opinion regarding the practicality of
imperial federation in the immediate future; there was some
divergence of ideas regarding the rate at which self-government should
be extended to the various parts of the Empire (especially India) . There
was a slight difference of emphasis on the importance of relations be-
tween the Commonwealth and the United States. But none of these dif-
ferences of opinion was fundamental or important. The most basic
divergence within the Group during the first twenty years or so was to
be found in the field of economic ideas — a field in which the Group as
a whole was extremely weak, and also extremely conservative. This
divergence existed, however, solely because of the extremely unor-
thodox character of Lord Milner's ideas. Milner's ideas (as expressed,
for example, in his book Questions of the Hour, published in 1923)
would have been progressive, even unorthodox, in 1935. They were
naturally ahead of the times in 1923, and they were certainly far ahead
of the ideas of the Group as a whole, for its economic ideas would have
been old-fashioned in 1905. These ideas of the Group (until 1931, at
least) were those of late-nineteenth-century international banking and
financial capitalism. The key to all economics and prosperity was con-
sidered to rest in banking and finance. With "sound money," a bal-
anced budget, and the international gold standard, it was expected
that prosperity and rising standards of living would follow automati-
cally. These ideas were propagated through The Round Table, in the
period after 1912, in a series of articles written by Brand and subse-
quently republished under his name, with the title War and National
Finance (1921). They are directly antithetical to the ideas of Milner as
revealed in his book published two years later. Milner insisted that
financial questions must be subordinated to economic questions and
economic questions to political questions. As a result, if a deflationary
policy, initiated for financial reasons, has deleterious economic or
political effects, it must be abandoned. Milner regarded the financial

"The Round Table" / 123

policy advocated by Brand in 1919 and followed by the British govern-
ment for the next twelve years as a disaster, since it led to unemploy-
ment, depression, and ruination of the export trade. Instead, Milner
wanted to isolate the British economy from the world economy by
tariffs and other barriers and encourage the economic development of
the United Kingdom by a system of government spending, self-
regulated capital and labor, social welfare, etc. This program, which
was based on "monopoly capitalism" or even "national socialism"
rather than "financial capitalism," as Brand's was, was embraced by
most of the Milner Group after September 1931, when the ending of
the gold standard in Britain proved once and for all that Brand's finan-
cial program of 1919 was a complete disaster and quite unworkable. As
a result, in the years after 1931 the businessmen of the Milner Group
embarked on a policy of government encouragement of self-regulated
monopoly capitalism. This was relatively easy for many members of
the Group because of the distrust of economic individualism which
they had inherited from Toynbee and Milner. In April 1932, when P.
Horsfall, manager of Lazard Brothers Bank (a colleague of Brand),
asked John Dove to write a defense of individualism in The Round
Table, Dove suggested that he write it himself, but, in reporting the in-
cident to Brand, he clearly indicated that the Group regarded in-
dividualism as obsolete. 8

This difference of opinion between Milner and Brand on economic
questions is not of great importance. The important matter is that
Brand's opinion prevailed within the Group from 1919 to 1931, while
Milner's has grown in importance from 1931 to the present. The impor-
tance of this can be seen in the fact that the financial and economic
policy followed by the British government from 1919 to 1945 runs
exactly parallel to the policy of the Milner Group. This is no accident
but is the result, as we shall see, of the dominant position held by the
Milner Group in the councils of the Conservative- Unionist party since
the First World War.

During the first decade or so of its existence, The Round Table con-
tinued to be edited and written by the inner circle of the Milner Group,
chiefly by Lothian, Brand, Hichens, Grigg, Dawson, Fisher, and
Dove. Curtis was too busy with the other activities of the Group to
devote much time to the magazine and had little to do with it until
after the war. By that time a number of others had been added to the
Group, chiefly as writers of occasional articles. Most of these were
members or future members of All Souls; they include Coupland,
Zimmern, Arnold Toynbee, Arthur Salter, Sir Maurice Hankey, and
others. The same Group that originally started the project in 1910 still
controls it today, with the normal changes caused by death or old age.
The vacancies resulting from these causes have been filled by new

124 / The Anglo-American Establishment

recruits from All Souls. It would appear that Coupland and Brand are
the most influential figures today. The following list gives the editors of
The Round Table from 1910 to the recent past:

Philip Kerr, 1910-1917

(assisted by E. Grigg, 1913-1915)
Reginald Coupland, 1917-1919
Lionel Curtis, 1919-1921
John Dove, 1921-1934
Henry V. Hodson, 1934-1939
Vincent Todd Harlow, (acting editor) 1938
Reginald Coupland, 1939-1941
Geoffrey Dawson, 1941-1944

Of these names, all but two are already familiar. H. V. Hodson, a
recent recruit to the Milner Group, was taken from All Souls. Born in
1906, he was at Balliol for three years (1925-1928) and on graduation
obtained a fellowship to All Souls, which he held for the regular term
(1928-1935). This fellowship opened to him the opportunities which he
had the ability to exploit. On the staff of the Economic Advisory Coun-
cil from 1930 to 1931 and an important member of the Royal Institute
of International Affairs, he was assistant editor of The Round Table for
three years (1931-1934) and became editor when Dove died in 1934. At
the same time he wrote for Toynbee the economic sections of the
Survey of International Affairs from 1929 on, publishing these in a
modified form as a separate volume, with the title Slump and
Recovery, 1929-1937, in 1938. With the outbreak of the Second World
War in 1939, he left The Round Table editorship and went to the
Ministry of Information (which was controlled completely by the
Milner Group) as director of the Empire Division. After two years in
this post he was given the more critical position of Reforms Commis-
sioner in the Government of India for two years (1941-1942) and then
was made assistant secretary and later head of the non-munitions divi-
sion of the Ministry of Production. This position was held until the war
ended, three years later. He then returned to private life as assistant
editor of The Sunday Times. In addition to the writings already
mentioned, he published The Economics of a Changing World (1933)
and The Empire in the World (1937), and edited The British
Commonwealth and the Future (1939).

Vincent T. Harlow, born in 1898, was in the Royal Field Artillery in
1917-1919 and then went to Brasenose, where he took his degree in
1923. He was lecturer in Modern History at University College,
Southampton, in 1923-1927, and then came into the magic circle of the
Milner Group. He was keeper of Rhodes House Library in 1928-1938,
Beit Lecturer in Imperial History in 1930-1935, and has been Rhodes

"The Round Table" / 125

Professor of Imperial History at the University of London since 1938.
He was a member of the Imperial Committee of the Royal Institute of
International Affairs and, during the war, was head of the Empire
Information Service at the Ministry of Information. He lives near
Oxford, apparently in order to keep in contact with the Group.

In the decade 1910-1920, the inner circle of the Milner Group was
busy with two other important activities in addition to The Round
Table magazine. These were studies of the problem of imperial federa-
tion and of the problem of extending self-government to India. Both of
these were in charge of Lionel Curtis and continued with little inter-
ruption from the war itself. The Round Table, which was in charge of
Kerr, never interrupted its publication, but from 1915 onward it
became a secondary issue to winning the war and making the peace.
The problem of imperial federation will be discussed here and in
Chapter 8, the war and the peace in Chapter 7, and the problem of
India in Chapter 10.

During the period 1911-1913, as we have said, Curtis was busy in
England with the reports from the Round Table Groups in the Domin-
ions in reply to his printed memorandum. At the end of 1911 and again
in 1913, he printed these reports in two substantial volumes, without
the names of the contributors. These volumes were never published,
but a thousand copies of each were distributed to the various groups.
On the basis of these reports, Curtis drafted a joint report, which was
printed and circulated as each section was completed. It soon became
clear that there was no real agreement within the groups and that im-
perial federation was not popular in the Dominions. This was a bitter
pill to the Group, especially to Curtis, but he continued to work for
several years more. In 1912, Milner and Kerr went to Canada and
made speeches to Round Table Groups and their associates. The
following year Curtis went to Canada to discuss the status of the in-
quiry on imperial organization with the various Round Table Groups
there and summed up the results in a speech in Toronto in October
1913. 9 He decided to draw up four reports as follows: (a) the existing
situation; (b) a system involving complete independence for the
Dominions; (c) a plan to secure unity of foreign relations by each
Dominion's following a policy independent from but parallel to that of
Britain itself; (d) a plan to reduce the United Kingdom to a Dominion
and create a new imperial government over all the Dominions. Since
the last was what Curtis wanted, he decided to write that report
himself and allow supporters of each of the other three to write theirs.
A thousand copies of this speech were circulated among the groups
throughout the world.

When the war broke out in 1914, the reports were not finished, so it
was decided to print the four sections already sent out, with a

126 / The Anglo-American Establishment

concluding chapter. A thousand copies of this, with the title Project of
a Commonwealth, were distributed among the groups. Then a popular
volume on the subject, with the title The Problem of the Common-
wealth and Curtis's name as editor, was published (May 1916). Two
months later, the earlier work (Project) was published under the title
The Commonwealth of Nations, again with Curtis named as editor.
Thus appeared for the first time in public the name which the British
Empire was to assume thirty-two years later. In the September 1916
issue of The Round Table, Kerr published a statement on the relation-
ship of the two published volumes to the Round Table Groups. Because
of the paper shortage in England, Curtis in 1916 went to Canada and
Australia to arrange for the separate publication of The Problem of the
Commonwealth in those countries. At the same time he set up new
Round Table Groups in Australia and New Zealand. Then he went to
India to begin serious work on Indian reform. From this emerged the
Government of India Act of 1919, as we shall see later.

By this time Curtis and the others had come to realize that any
formal federation of the Empire was impossible. As Curtis wrote in
1917 (in his Letter to the People of India): "The people of the Domin-
ions rightly aspire to control their own foreign affairs and yet retain
their status as British citizens. On the other hand, they detest the idea
of paying taxes to any Imperial Parliament, even to one upon which
their own representatives sit. The inquiry convinced me that, unless
they sent members and paid taxes to an Imperial Parliament, they
could not control their foreign affairs and also remain British subjects.
But I do not think that doctrine is more distasteful to them than the
idea of having anything to do with the Government of India."

Reluctantly Curtis and the others postponed the idea of a federated
Empire and fell back on the idea of trying to hold the Empire together
by the intangible bonds of common culture and common outlook. This
had originally (in Rhodes and Milner) been a supplement to the project
of a federation. It now became the chief issue, and the idea of federa-
tion fell into a secondary place. At the same time, the idea of federation
was swallowed up in a larger scheme for organizing the whole world
within a League of Nations. This idea had also been held by Rhodes
and Milner, but in quite a different form. To the older men, the world
was to be united around the British Empire as a nucleus. To Curtis, the
Empire was to be absorbed into a world organization. This second idea
was fundamentally mystical. Curtis believed: "Die and ye shall be born
again." He sincerely felt that if the British Empire died in the proper
way (by spreading liberty, brotherhood, and justice), it would be born
again in a higher level of existence — as a world community, or, as he
called it, a "Commonwealth of Nations." It is not yet clear whether the
resurrection envisaged by Curtis and his associates will occur, or

"The Round Table" / 127

whether they merely assisted at the crucifixion of the British Empire.
The conduct of the new India in the next few decades will decide this
question.

The idea for federation of the Empire was not original with the
Round Table Group, although their writings would indicate that they
sometimes thought so. The federation which they envisaged had been
worked out in detail by persons close to the Cecil Bloc and was
accepted by Milner and Rhodes as their own chief goal in life.

The original impetus for imperial federation arose within the
Liberal Party as a reaction against the Little England doctrines that
were triumphant in England before 1868. The original movement
came from men like John Stuart Mill (whose arguments in support of
the Empire are just like Curtis's) and Earl Grey (who was Colonial
Secretary under Russell in 1846-1852). 10

This movement resulted in the founding of the Royal Colonial Soci-
ety (now Royal Empire Society) in 1868 and, as a kind of subsidiary of
this, the Imperial Federation League in 1884. Many Unionist members
of the Cecil Bloc, such as Brassey and Goschen, were in these organiza-
tions. In 1875 F. P. Labilliere, a moving power in both organizations,
read a paper before the older one on "The Permanent Unity of the Em-
pire" and suggested a solution of the imperial problem by creating a
superimposed imperial legislative body and a central executive over the
whole Empire, including the United Kingdom. Seven years later, in
"The Political Organization of the Empire," he divided authority be-
tween this new federal authority and the Dominions by dividing the
business of government into imperial questions, local questions, and
questions concerning both levels. He then enumerated the matters that
would be allotted to each division, on a basis very similar to that later
advocated by Curtis. Another speaker, George Bourinot, in 1880, dealt
with "The Natural Development of Canada" in a fashion that sounds
exactly like Curtis."

These ideas and projects were embraced by Milner as his chief
purpose in life until, like Curtis, he came to realize their impracti-
cality. 12 Milner 's ideas can be found in his speeches and letters,
especially in two letters of 1901 to Brassey and Parkin. Brassey had
started a campaign for imperial federation accompanied by devolution
(that is, granting local issues to local bodies even within the United
Kingdom) and the creation of an imperial parliament to include
representatives of the colonies. This imperial parliament would deal
with imperial questions, while local parliaments would deal with local
questions. In pursuit of this project, Brassey published a pamphlet, in
December 1900, called A Policy on Which All Liberals May Unite and
sent to Milner an invitation to join him. Milner accepted in February
1901, saying:

128 / The Anglo-American Establishment

There are probably no two men who are more fully agreed in their
general view of Imperial policy [than we]. ... It is clear to me that we
require separate organs to deal with local home business and with
Imperial business. The attempt to conduct both through one so-called
Imperial Parliament is breaking down. . . . Granted that we must have
separate Parliaments for Imperial and Local business, I have been coming
by a different road, and for somewhat different reasons, to the conclusion
which you also are heading for, viz: that it would be better not to create
a new body over the so-called Imperial Parliament, but ... to create new
bodies, or a new body under it for the local business of Great Britain and
Ireland, leaving it to deal with the wider questions of Foreign Policy, the
Defence of the Empire, and the relations of the several parts. In that
case, of course, the colonies would have to be represented in the Imperial
Parliament, which would thus become really Imperial. One great diffi-
culty, no doubt, is that, if this body were to be really effective as an
instrument of Imperial Policy, it would require to be reduced in
numbers. . . . The reduction in numbers of British members might no
doubt be facilitated by the creation of local legislatures. . . . The time is
ripe to make a beginning. ... I wish Rosebery, who could carry through
such a policy if any man could, was less pessimistic.

The idea of devolving the local business of the imperial parliament
upon local legislative bodies for Scotland, England, Wales, and Ireland
was advocated in a book by Lord Esher called After the War and in a
book called The Great Opportunity by Edward Wood (the future Lord*
Halifax). These books, in their main theme, were nothing more than a
restatement of this aspect of the imperial federation project. They were
accompanied, on 4 June 1919, by a motion introduced in the House of
Commons by Wood, and carried by a vote of 187 to 34, that "the time
has come for the creation of subordinate legislatures within the United
Kingdom." Nothing came of this motion, just as nothing came of the
federation plans.

Milner's ideas on the latter subject were restated in a letter to Parkin
on 18 September 1901:

The existing Parliaments, whether British or Colonial, are too small, and
so are the statesmen they produce (except in accidental cases like
Chamberlain), for such big issues. Until we get a real Imperial Council,
not merely a Consultative, but first a Constitutional, and then an
Executive Council with control of all our world business, we shall get
nothing. Look at the way in which the splendid opportunities for federal
defence which this war afforded, have been thrown away. I believe it will
come about, but at present I do not see the man to do it. Both you and I
could help him enormously, almost decisively indeed, for I have, and
doubtless you have, an amount of illustration and argument to bring to
bear on the subject, drawn from practical experience, which would logi-
cally smash the opposition. Our difficulty in the old days was that we

"The Round Table" / 129

were advocating a grand, but, as it seemed, an impractical idea. I should
advocate the same thing today as an urgent practical necessity. 13

The failure of imperial federation in the period 1910-1917 forced
Parkin and Milner to fall back on ideological unity as achieved through
the Rhodes Scholarships, just as the same event forced Curtis and
others to fall back on the same goal as achieved through the Royal In-
stitute of International Affairs. All parties did this with reluctance. As
Dove wrote to Brand in 1923, "This later thing [the RIIA] is all
right — it may help us to reach that unity of direction in foreign policy
we are looking for, if it becomes a haunt of visitors from the Domin-
ions; but Lionel's first love has still to be won, and if, as often happens,
accomplishment lessens appetite, and he turns again to his earlier and
greater work, we shall all be the gainers." 14

This shift from institutional to ideological bonds for uniting the
Empire makes it necessary that we should have a clear idea of the
outlook of The Round Table and the whole Milner Group. This outlook
was well stated in an article in Volume III of that journal, from the pen
of an unidentified writer. This article, entitled "The Ethics of Empire,"
is deserving of close attention. It emphasized that the arguments for the
Empire and the bonds which bind it together must be moral and not
based on considerations of material advantage or even of defense. This
emphasis on moral considerations, rather than economic or strategic, is
typical of the Group as a whole and is found in Milner and even in
Rhodes. Professional politicians, bureaucrats, utilitarians, and materi-
alist social reformers are criticized for their failure to "appeal convinc-
ingly as an ideal of moral welfare to the ardour and imagination of a
democratic people." They are also criticized for failure to see that this
is the basis on which the Empire was reared.

The development of the British Empire teaches how moral conviction and
devotion to duty have inspired the building of the structure. Opponents
of Imperialism are wont to suggest that the story will not bear inspection,
that it is largely a record of self-aggrandizement and greed. Such a charge
betrays ignorance of its history. . . . The men who have laboured most
enduringly at the fabric of Empire were not getters of wealth and plun-
derers of spoil. It was due to their strength of character and moral purpose
that British rule in India and Egypt has become the embodiment of order
and justice. . . . Duty is an abstract term, but the facts it signifies are the
most concrete and real in our experience. The essential thing is to grasp its
meaning as a motive power in men's lives. [This was probably from Kerr,
but could have been Toynbee or Milner speaking. The writer continued:]
The end of the State is to make men, and its strength is measured not in
terms of defensive armaments or economic prosperity but by the moral
personality of its citizens. . . . The function of the State is positive and
ethical, to secure for its individual members that they shall not merely live

130 / The Anglo-American Establishment

but live well. Social reformers are prone to insist too strongly on an ideal
of material comfort for the people. ... A life of satisfaction depends not
on higher wages or lower prices or on leisure for recreation, but on work
that calls into play the higher capacities of man's nature. . . . The cry of
the masses should be not for wages or comforts or even liberty, but for
opportunities for enterprise and responsibility. A policy for closer union
in the Empire is full of significance in relation to this demand. . . . There
is but one way of promise. It is that the peoples of the Empire shall realize
their national unity and draw from that ideal an inspiration to common
endeavour in the fulfillment of the moral obligations which their
membership of the Empire entails. The recognition of common Imperial
interests is bound to broaden both their basis of public action and their
whole view of life. Public life is ennobled by great causes and by these
alone. . . . Political corruption, place-hunting, and party intrigue have
their natural home in small communities where attention is concentrated
upon local interests. Great public causes call into being the intellectual
and moral potentialities of people. . . . The phrases "national character,"
"national will," and "national personality" are no empty catchwords.
Everyone knows that esprit de corps is not a fiction but a reality; that the
spirit animating a college or a regiment is something that cannot be mea-
sured in terms of the private contributions of the individual members. . . .
The people of the Empire are face to face with a unique and an historic
opportunity! It is their mission to base the policy of a Great Empire on the
foundations of freedom and law. ... It remains for them to crown the
structure by the institution of a political union that shall give solidarity to
the Empire as a whole. Duty and the logic of facts alike point this goal of
their endeavour.

In this article can be found, at least implicitly, all the basic ideas of
the Milner Group: their suspicion of party politics; their emphasis on
moral qualities and the cement of common outlook for linking people
together; their conviction that the British Empire is the supreme moral
achievement of man, but an achievement yet incomplete and still
unfolding; their idea that the highest moral goals are the development
of personality through devotion to duty and service under freedom and
law; their neglect, even scorn, for economic considerations; and their
feeling for the urgent need to pursuade others to accept their point of
view in order to allow the Empire to achieve the destiny for which they
yearn.

The Milner Group is a standing refutation of the Marxist or Leninist
interpretations of history or of imperialism. Its members were moti-
vated only slightly by materialistic incentives, and their imperialism
was motivated not at all by the desire to preserve or extend capitalism.
On the contrary their economic ideology, in the early stages at least,
was more. socialistic than Manchester in its orientation. To be sure, it
was an undemocratic kind of socialism, which was willing to make

"The Round Table" / 131

many sacrifices to the well-being of the masses of the people but reluc-
tant to share with these masses political power that might allow them
to seek their own well-being. This socialistic leaning was more evident
in the earlier (or Balliol) period than in the later (or New College)
period, and disappeared almost completely when Lothian and Brand
replaced Esher, Grey, and Milner at the center of the Group. Esher
regarded the destruction of the middle class as inevitable and felt that
the future belonged to the workers and an administrative state. He
dedicated his book After the War (1919) to Robert Smillie, President of
the Miners' Federation, and wrote him a long letter on 5 May 1919. On
12 September of the same year, he wrote to his son, the present Vis-
count Esher: "There are things that cannot be confiscated by the
Smillies and Sidney Webbs. These seem to me the real objectives."
Even earlier, Arnold Toynbee was a socialist of sorts and highly critical
of the current ideology of liberal capitalism as proclaimed by the high
priests of the Manchester School. Milner gave six lectures on socialism
in Whitechapel in 1882 (published in 1931 in The National Review).
Both Toynbee and Milner worked intermittently at social service of a
mildly socialistic kind, an effort that resulted in the founding of
Toynbee Hall as a settlement house in 1884. As chairman of the board
of Internal Revenue in 1892-1897, Milner drew up Sir William Har-
court's budget, which inaugurated the inheritance tax. In South Africa
he was never moved by capitalistic motives, placing a heavy profits tax
on the output of the Rand mines to finance social improvements, and
considering with objective calm the question of nationalizing the
railroads or even the mines. Both Toynbee and Milner were early
suspicious of the virtues of free trade — not, however, because tariffs
could provide high profits for industrial concerns but because tariffs
and imperial preference could link the Empire more closely into
economic unity. In his later years, Milner became increasingly radical,
a development that did not fit any too well with the conservative finan-
cial outlook of Brand, or even Hichens. As revealed in his book Ques-
tions of the Hour (1923), Milner was a combination of technocrat and
guild socialist and objected vigorously to the orthodox financial policy
of deflation, balanced budget, gold standard, and free international
exchange advocated by the Group after 1918. This orthodox policy, in-
spired by Brand and accepted by The Round Table after 1918, was
regarded by Milner as an invitation to depression, unemployment, and
the dissipation of Britain's material and moral resources. On this point
there can be no doubt that Milner was correct. Not himself a trained
economist, Milner, nevertheless, saw that the real problems were of a
technical and material nature and that Britain's ability to produce
goods should be limited only by the real supply of knowledge, labor,
energy, and materials and not by the artificial limitations of a de-

132 / The Anglo-American Establishment

liberately restricted supply of money and credit. This point of view of
Milner's was not accepted by the Group until after 1931, and not as
completely as by Milner even then. The point of view of the Group, at
least in the period 1918-1931, was the point of view of the international
bankers with whom Brand, Hichens, and others were so closely con-
nected. This point of view, which believed that Britain's prewar finan-
cial supremacy could be restored merely by reestablishing the prewar
financial system, with the pound sterling at its prewar parity, failed
completely to see the changed conditions that made all efforts to restore
the prewar system impossible. The Group's point of view is clearly
revealed in The Round Table articles of the period. In the issue of
December 1918, Brand advocated the financial policy which the
British government followed, with such disastrous results, for the next
thirteen years. He wrote:

That nation will recover quickest after the war which corrects soonest any
depreciation in currency, reduces by production and saving its inflated
credit, brings down its level of prices, and restores the free import and
export of gold. . . . With all our wealth of financial knowledge and exper-
ience behind us it should be easy for us to steer the right path — though it
will not be always a pleasant one— amongst the dangers of the future.
Every consideration leads to the view that the restoration of the gold stan-
dard—whether or not it can be achieved quickly — should be our aim.
Only by that means can we be secure that our level of prices shall be as
low as or lower than prices in other countries, and on that condition
depends the recovery of our export trade and the prevention of excessive
imports. Only by that means can we provide against and abolish the
depreciation of our currency which, though the [existing] prohibition
against dealings in gold prevents our measuring it, almost certainly exists,
and safeguard ourself against excessive grants of credit.

He then outlined a detailed program to contract credit, curtail
government spending, raise taxes, curtail imports, increase exports,
etc. 15 Hichens, who, as an industrialist rather than a banker, was not
nearly so conservative in financial matters as Brand, suggested that the
huge public debt of 1919 be met by a capital levy, but, when Brand's
policies were adopted by the government, Hichens went along with
them and sought a way out for his own business by reducing costs by
"rationalization of production."

These differences of opinion on economic matters within the Group
did not disrupt the Group, because it was founded on political rather
than economic ideas and its roots were to be found in ancient Athens
rather than in modern Manchester. The Balliol generation, from
Jowett and Nettleship, and the New College generation, from
Zimmern, obtained an idealistic picture of classical Greece which left
them nostalgic for the fifth century of Hellenism and drove them to

"The Round Table" / 133

seek to reestablish that ancient fellowship of intellect and patriotism in
modern Britain. The funeral oration of Pericles became their political
covenant with destiny. Duty to the state and loyalty to one's fellow
citizens became the chief values of life. But, realizing that the jewel of
Hellenism was destroyed by its inability to organize any political unit
larger than a single city, the Milner Group saw the necessity of political
organization in order to insure the continued existence of freedom and
higher ethical values and hoped to be able to preserve the values of
their day by organizing the whole world around the British Empire.

Curtis puts this quite clearly in The Commonwealth of Nations
(1916), where he says:

States, whether autocracies or commonwealths, ultimately rest on duty,
not on self-interest or force. . . . The quickening principle of a state is a
sense of devotion, an adequate recognition somewhere in the minds of its
subjects that their own interests are subordinate to those of the state. The
bond which unites them and constitutes them collectively as a state is, to
use the words of Lincoln, in the nature of dedication. Its validity, like
that of the marriage tie, is at root not contractual but sacramental. Its
foundation is not self-interest, but rather some sense of obligation, how-
ever conceived, which is strong enough to over-master self-interest.

History for this Group, and especially for Curtis, presented itself as
an age-long struggle between the principles of autocracy and the prin-
ciples of commonwealth, between the forces of darkness and the forces
of light, between Asiatic theocracy and European freedom. This view
of history, founded on the work of Zimmern, E. A. Freeman, Lord
Bryce, and A. V. Dicey, felt that the distinguishing mark between the
two hosts could be found in their views of law — the forces of light
regarding law as manmade and mutable, but yet above all men, while
the forces of darkness regarded law as divine and eternal, yet subor-
dinate to the king. The one permitted diversity, growth, and freedom,
while the other engendered monotony, stultification, and slavery. The
struggle between the two had gone on for thousands of years, spawning
such offspring as the Persian Wars, the Punic Wars, and the struggles
of Britain with the forces of Philip II, of Louis XIV, of Napoleon, and
of Wilhelm II. Thus, to this Group, Britain stood as the defender of all
that was fine or civilized in the modern world, just as Athens had stood
for the same values in the ancient world. 17 Britain's mission, under this
interpretation, was to carry freedom and light (that is, the principles of
commonwealth) against the forces of theocracy and darkness (that is,
autocracy) in Asia — and even in Central Europe. For this Group re-
garded the failure of France or Germany to utilize the English idea of
"supremacy of law" (as described by Dicey in his The Law of the Con-
stitution, 1885) as proof that these countries were still immersed, at

134 / The Anglo-American Establishment

least partially, in the darkness of theocratic law. The slow spread of
English political institutions to Europe as well as Asia in the period
before the First World War was regarded by the Group as proof both
of their superiority and of the possibility of progress. In Asia and
Africa, at least, England's civilizing mission was to be carried out by
force, if necessary, for "the function of force is to give moral ideas time
to take root." Asia thus could be compelled to accept civilization, a
procedure justifiable to the Group on the grounds that Asians are ob-
viously better off under European rule than under the rule of fellow
Asians and, if consulted, would clearly prefer British rule to that of any
other European power. To be sure, the blessings to be extended to the
less fortunate peoples of the world did not include democracy. To
Milner, to Curtis, and apparently to most members of the Group,
democracy was not an unmixed good, or even a good, and far inferior
to rule by the best, or, as Curtis says, by those who "have some intellec-
tual capacity for judging the public interest, and, what is no less im-
portant, some moral capacity for treating it as paramount to their
own."

This disdain for unrestricted democracy was quite in accordance
with the ideas revealed by Milner's activities in South Africa and with
the Greek ideals absorbed at Balliol or New College. However, the
restrictions on democracy accepted by the Milner Group were of a tem-
porary character, based on the lack of education and background of
those who were excluded from political participation. It was not a
question of blood or birth, for these men were not racists.

This last point is important because of the widespread misconception
that these people were racially intolerant. They never were; certainly
those of the inner circle never were. On the contrary, they were ardent
advocates of a policy of education and uplift of all groups, so that
ultimately all groups could share in political life and in the rich
benefits of the British way of life. To be sure, the members of the
Group did not advocate the immediate extension of democracy and
self-government to all peoples within the Empire, but these restrictions
were based not on color of skin or birth but upon cultural outlook and
educational background. Even Rhodes, who is widely regarded as a
racist because his scholarships were restricted to candidates from the
Nordic countries, was not a racist. He restricted his scholarships to
these countries because he felt that they had a background sufficiently
homogeneous to allow the hope that educational interchange could
link them together to form the core of the worldwide system which he
hoped would ultimately come into existence. Beyond this, Rhodes in-
sisted that there must be no restrictions placed on the scholarships on a
basis of race, religion, skin color, or national origin. 18 In his own life,
Rhodes cared nothing about these things. Some of his closest friends

"The Round Table" / 135

were Jews (like Beit) , and in three of his wills he left Lord Rothschild as
his trustee, in one as his sole trustee. Milner and the other members felt
similarly. Lionel Curtis, in his writings, makes perfectly clear both his
conviction that character is acquired by training rather than innate
ability and his insistence on tolerance in personal contact between
members of different races. In his The Commonwealth of Nations
(1916) he says: "English success in planting North America and the
comparative failure of their rivals must, in fact, be traced to the respec-
tive merits not of breed but of institutions"; and again: "The energy
and intelligence which had saved Hellas [in the Persian Wars] was the
product of her free institutions." In another work he protests against
English mistreatment of natives in India and states emphatically that it
must be ended. He says: "The conduct on the part of Europeans ... is
more than anything else the root cause of Indian unrest ... I am
strongly of opinion that governors should be vested with powers to in-
vestigate judicially cases where Europeans are alleged to have outraged
Indian feelings. Wherever a case of wanton and unprovoked insult
such as those I have cited is proved, government should have the power
to order the culprit to leave the country. ... A few deportations would
soon effect a definite change for the better." 19 That Dove felt similarly
is clear from his letters to Brand.

Without a belief in racism, it was perfectly possible for this Group to
believe, as they did, in the ultimate extension of freedom and self-
government to all parts of the Empire. To be sure, they believed that
this was a path to be followed slowly, but their reluctance was
measured by the inability of "backward" peoples to understand the
principles of a commonwealth, not by reluctance to extend to them
either democracy or self-government.

Curtis defined the distinction between a commonwealth and a des-
potism in the following terms: "The rule of law as contrasted with the
rule of an individual is the distinguishing mark of a commonwealth. In
despotism government rests on the authority of the ruler or of the in-
visible and uncontrollable power behind him. In a commonwealth
rulers derive their authority from the law and the law from a public
opinion which is competent to change it." Accordingly, "the institu-
tions of a commonwealth cannot be successfully worked by peoples
whose ideas are still those of a theocratic or patriarchal society. The
premature extension of representative institutions throughout the Em-
pire would be the shortest road to anarchy." 20 The people must first be
trained to understand and practice the chief principles of com-
monwealth, namely the supremacy of law and the subjection of the
motives of self-interest and material gain to the sense of duty to the in-
terests of the community as a whole. Curtis felt that such an educa-
tional process was not only morally necessary on the part of Britain but

136 / The Anglo-American Establishment

was a practical necessity, since the British could not expect to keep 430
million persons in subjection forever but must rather hope to educate
them up to a level where they could appreciate and cherish British
ideals. In one book he says: "The idea that the principle of the com-
monwealth implies universal suffrage betrays an ignorance of its real
nature. That principle simply means that government rests on the duty
of the citizens to each other, and is to be vested in those who are
capable of setting public interest before their own." 21 In another work
he says: "As sure as day follows the night, the time will come when they
[the Dominions] will have to assume the burden of the whole of their
affairs. For men who are fit for it, self-government is a question not of
privilege but rather of obligation. It is duty, not interest, which impels
men to freedom, and duty, not interest, is the factor which turns the
scale in human affairs." India is included in this evolutionary process,
for Curtis wrote: " A despotic government might long have closed India
to Western ideas. But a commonwealth is a living thing. It cannot suf-
fer any part of itself to remain inert. To live it must move, and move in
every limb. . . . Under British rule Western ideas will continue to
penetrate and disturb Oriental society, and whether the new spirit
ends in anarchy or leads to the establishment of a higher order depends
upon how far the millions of India can be raised to a fuller and more
rational conception of the ultimate foundations upon which the duty of
obedience to government rests."

These ideas were not Curtis 's own, although he was perhaps the most
prolific, most eloquent, and most intense in his feelings. They were
apparently shared by the whole inner circle of the Group. Dove,
writing to Brand from India in 1919, is favorable to reform and says:
"Lionel is right. You can't dam a world current. There is, I am con-
vinced, 'purpose' under such things. All that we can do is to try to turn
the flood into the best channel." In the same letter he said: "Unity will,
in the end, have to be got in some other way. . . . Love — call it, if you
like, by a longer name — is the only thing that can make our post-war
world go round, and it has, I believe, something to say here too. The
future of the Empire seems to me to depend on how far we are able to
recognize this. Our trouble is that we start some way behind scratch.
Indians must always find it hard to understand us." And the future
Lord Lothian, ordering an article on India for The Round Table from
a representative in India, wrote: "We want an article in The Round
Table and I suggest to you that the main conclusion which the reader
should draw from it should be that the responsibility rests upon him of
seeing that the Indian demands are sympathetically handled without
delay after the war." 22

What this Group feared was that the British Empire would fail to
profit from the lessons they had discerned in the Athenian empire or in

"The Round Table" / 137

the American Revolution. Zimmern had pointed out to them the sharp
contrast between the high idealism of Pericles's funeral oration and the
crass tyranny of the Athenian empire. They feared that the British Em-
pire might fall into the same difficulty and destroy British idealism and
British liberties by the tyranny necessary to hold on to a reluctant Em-
pire. And any effort to hold an empire by tyranny they regarded as
doomed to failure. Britain would be destroyed, as Athens was
destroyed, by powers more tyrannical than herself. And, still drawing
parallels with ancient Greece, the Group feared that all culture and
civilization would go down to destruction because of our inability to
construct some kind of political unit larger than the national state, just
as Greek culture and civilization in the fourth century b.c. went down
to destruction because of the Greeks' inability to construct some kind of
political unit larger than the city-state. This was the fear that had
animated Rhodes, and it was the same fear that was driving the Milner
Group to transform the British Empire into a Commonwealth of Na-
tions and then place that system within a League of Nations. In 1917,
Curtis wrote in his Letter to the People of India: "The world is in throes
which precede creation or death. Our whole race has outgrown the
merely national state, and as surely as day follows night or night the
day, will pass either to a Commonwealth of Nations or else an empire
of slaves. And the issue of these agonies rests with us."

At the same time the example of the American Revolution showed
the Group the dangers of trying to rule the Empire from London: to tax
without representation could only lead to disruption. Yet it was no
longer possible that 45 million in the United Kingdom could tax them-
selves for the defense of 435 million in the British Empire. What, then,
was the solution? The Milner Group's efforts to answer this question
led eventually, as we shall see in Chapter 8, to the present Com-
monwealth of Nations, but before we leave The Round Table, a few
words should be said about Lord Milner 's personal connection with the
Round Table Group and the Group's other connections in the field of
journalism and publicity.

Milner was the creator of the Round Table Group (since this is but
another name for the Kindergarten) and remained in close personal
contact with it for the rest of his life. In the sketch of Milner in the Dic-
tionary of National Biography, written by Basil Williams of the
Kindergarten, we read: "He was always ready to discuss national ques-
tions on a non-party basis, joining with former members of his South
African 'Kindergarten' in their 'moot,' from which originated the
political review, The Round Table, and in a more heterogeneous soci-
ety, the 'Coefficients,' where he discussed social and imperial prob-
lems with such curiously assorted members as L. S. Amery, H. G.
Wells, (Lord) Haldane, Sir Edward Grey, (Sir) Michael Sadler, Ber-

138 / The Anglo-American Establishment

nard Shaw, J. L. Garvin, William Pember Reeves, and W. A. S.
Hewins." In the obituary of Hichens, as already indicated, we find in
reference to the Round Table the sentence: "Often at its head sat the
old masters of the Kindergarten, Lord Milner and his successor, Lord
Selborne, close friends and allies of Hichens to the end." And in the
obituary of Lord Milner in The Round Table for June 1925, we find the
following significant passage:

The founders and the editors of The Round Table mourn in a very special
sense the death of Lord Milner. For with him they have lost not only a
much beloved friend, but one whom they have always regarded as their
leader. Most of them had the great good fortune to serve under him in
South Africa during or after the South African war, and to learn at first-
hand from him something of the great ideals which inspired him. From
those days at the very beginning of this century right up to the present
time, through the days of Crown Colony Government in the Transvaal
and Orange Free State, of the making of the South African constitution,
and through all the varied and momentous history of the British Empire
in the succeeding fifteen years, they have had the advantage of Lord
Milner 's counsel and guidance, and they are grateful to think that, though
at times he disagreed with them, he never ceased to regard himself as the
leader to whom, above everyone else, they looked. It is of melancholy
interest to recall that Lord Milner had undertaken to come on May 13, the
very day of his death, to a meeting specially to discuss with them South
African problems.

The Round Table was published during the Second World War from
Rhodes House, Oxford, which is but one more indication of the way in
which the various instruments of the Milner Group are able to co-
operate with one another.

The Times and The Round Table are not the only publications
which have been controlled by the Milner Group. At various times in
the past, the Group has been very influential on the staffs of the
Quarterly Review, The Nineteenth Century and After, The Economist,
and the Spectator. Anyone familiar with these publications will realize
that most of them, for most of the time, have been quite secretive as to
the names of the members of their staffs or even as to the names of their
editors. The extent of the Milner Group's influence and the periods
during which it was active cannot be examined here.

The Milner Group was also very influential in an editorial fashion in
regard to a series of excellent and moderately priced volumes known as
The Home University Library. Any glance at the complete list of
volumes in this series will reveal that a large number of the names are
those of persons mentioned in this study. The influence of the Group on
The Home University Library was chiefly exercised through H. A. L.

"The Round Table" / 139

Fisher, a member of the inner circle of the Group, but the influence,
apparently, has survived his death in 1940.

The Milner Group also attempted, at the beginning at least, to use
Milner's old connections with adult education and working-class
schools (a connection derived from Toynbee and Samuel Barnett) to
propagate its imperial doctrines. As A. L. Smith, the Master of Balliol,
put it in 1915, "We must educate our masters." In this connection,
several members of the Round Table Group played an active role in the
Oxford Summer School for Working Class Students in 1913. This was
so successful (especially a lecture on the Empire by Curtis) that a two-
week conference was held early in the summer of 1914, "addressed by
members of the Round Table Group, and others, on Imperial and
Foreign Problems" (to quote A. L. Smith again). As a result, a plan was
drawn up on 30 July 1914 to present similar programs in the 110
tutorial classes existing in industrial centers. The outbreak of war
prevented most of this program from being carried out. After the war
ended, the propaganda work among the British working classes
became less important, for various reasons, of which the chief were
that working-class ears were increasingly monopolized by Labour
Party speakers and that the Round Table Group were busy with other
problems like the League of Nations, Ireland, and the United States. 23

8

War and Peace,
1915-1920

The Milner Group was out of power for a decade from 1906 to 1915.
We have already indicated our grounds for believing that this condi-
tion was not regarded with distaste, since its members were engaged in
important activities of their own and approved of the conduct of
foreign policy (their chief field of interest) by the Liberal Party under
Asquith, Grey, and Haldane. During this period came the Union of
South Africa, The Morley-Minto reforms, the naval race with Ger-
many, the military conversations with France, the agreement of 1907
with Russia, the British attitude against Germany in the Agadir crisis
(a crisis to whose creation The Times had contributed no little
material) — in fact, a whole series of events in which the point of view
of the Milner Group was carried out just as if they were in office. To be
sure, in domestic matters such as the budget dispute and the ensuing
House of Lords dispute, and in the question of Home Rule for Ireland,
the Milner Group did not regard the Liberal achievements with com-
plete satisfaction, but in none of these were the members of the Milner
Group diehards (as members of the Cecil Bloc sometimes were). 1 But
with the outbreak of war, the Milner Group and the Cecil Bloc wanted
to come to power and wanted it badly, chiefly because control of the
government in wartime would make it possible to direct events toward
the postwar settlement which the Group envisaged. The Group also
believed that the war could be used by them to fasten on Britain the
illiberal economic regulation of which they had been dreaming since
Chamberlain resigned in 1903 (at least).

The Group got to power in 1916 by a method which they repeated
with the Labour Party in 1931. By a secret intrigue with a parvenu
leader of the government, the Group offered to make him head of a
new government if he would split his own party and become Prime
Minister, supported by the Group and whatever members he could
split off from his own party. The chief difference between 1916 and
1931 is that in the former year the minority that was being betrayed
140

War and Peace: 1915-1920 / 141

was the Group's own social class — in fact, the Liberal Party members
of the Cecil Bloc. Another difference is that in 1916 the plot
worked — the Liberal Party was split and permanently destroyed —
while in 1931 the plotters broke off only a fragment of the Labour
Party and damaged it only temporarily (for fourteen years). This last
difference, however, was not caused by any lack of skill in carrying out
the intrigue but by the sociological differences between the Liberal
Party and the Labour Party in the twentieth century. The latter was
riding the wave of the future, while the former was merely one of two
"teams" put on the field by the same school for an intramural game,
and, as such, it was bound to fuse with its temporary antagonist as soon
as the future produced an extramural challenger. This strange (to an
outsider) point of view will explain why Asquith had no real animosity
for Bonar Law or Balfour (who really betrayed him) but devoted the
rest of his life to belittling the actions of Lloyd George. Asquith talked
later about how he was deceived (and even lied to) in December 1915,
but never made any personal attack on Bonar Law, who did the pre-
varicating (if any). The actions of Bonar Law were acceptable in the
code of British politics, a code largely constructed on the playing fields
of Eton and Harrow, but Lloyd George's actions, which were con-
siderably less deliberate and cold-blooded, were quite unforgivable,
coming as they did from a parvenu who had been built up to a high
place in the Liberal Party because of his undeniable personal ability,
but who, nonetheless, was an outsider who had never been near the
playing fields of Eton.

In the coalition governments of May 1915 and December 1916,
members of the Cecil Bloc took the more obvious positions (as befitted
their seniority), while members of the Milner Group took the less con-
spicuous places, but by 1918 the latter group had the whole situation
tied up in a neat package and held all the strings.

In the first coalition (May 1915), Lansdowne came into the Cabinet
without portfolio, Curzon as Lord Privy Seal, Bonar Law at the
Colonial Office, Austen Chamberlain at the India Office, Balfour at
the Admiralty, Selborne as President of the Board of Agriculture,
Walter Long as President of the Local Government Board, Sir Edward
Carson as Attorney General, F. E. Smith as Solicitor General, Lord
Robert Cecil as Under Secretary in the Foreign Office, and Arthur
Steel-Maitland as Under Secretary in the Colonial Office. Of these
eleven names, at least nine were members of the Cecil Bloc, and four
were close to the Milner Group (Cecil, Balfour, Steel-Maitland, and
Selborne) .

In the second coalition government (December 1916), Milner was
Minister without Portfolio; Curzon was Lord President of the Council;
Bonar Law, Chancellor of the Exchequer; Sir Robert Finlay, Lord

142 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Chancellor; the Earl of Crawford, Lord Privy Seal; Sir George Cave,
Home Secretary; Arthur Balfour, Foreign Secretary; The Earl of
Derby, War Secretary; Walter Long, Colonial Secretary; Austen
Chamberlain, at the India Office; Sir Edward Carson, First Lord of
the Admiralty; Henry E. Duke, Chief Secretary for Ireland; H. A. L.
Fisher, President of the Board of Education; R. E. Prothero, President
of the Board of Agriculture; Sir Albert Stanley, President of the Board
of Trade; F. E. Smith, Attorney General; Robert Cecil, Minister of
Blockade; Lord Hardinge, Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs; Steel -
Maitland, Under Secretary for the Colonies; and Lord Wolmer (son of
Lord Selborne), assistant director of the War Trade Department. Of
these twenty names, eleven, at least, were members of the Cecil Bloc,
and four or five were members of the Milner Group.

Milner himself became the second most important figure in the
government (after Lloyd George), especially while he was Minister
without Portfolio. He was chiefly interested in food policy, war trade
regulations, and postwar settlements. He was chairman of a committee
to increase home production of food (1915) and of a committee on post-
war reconstruction (1916). From the former came the food-growing
policy adopted in 1917, and from the latter came the Ministry of
Health set up in 1919. In 1917 he went with Lloyd George to a meeting
of the Allied War Council in Rome and from there on a mission to
Russia. He went to France after the German victories in March 1918,
and was the principal influence in the appointment of Foch as Supreme
Commander in the west. In April he became Secretary of State for
War, and, after the election of December 1918, became Colonial
Secretary. He was one of the signers of the Treaty of Versailles. Of
Milner's role at this time, John Buchan wrote in his memoirs: "In the
Great War from 1916 to 1918, he was the executant of the War
Cabinet who separated the sense from the nonsense in the deliberations
of that body, and was responsible for its chief practical achievements.
To him were largely due the fruitful things which emerged from the
struggle, the new status of the Dominions, and the notable advances in
British social policy." In all of these actions Milner remained as unob-
trusive as possible. Throughout this period Milner's opinion of Lloyd
George was on the highest level. Writing twenty years later in The
Commonwealth of God, Lionel Curtis recorded two occasions in which
Milner praised Lloyd George in the highest terms. On one of these he
called him a greater war leader than Chatham.

At this period it was not always possible to distinguish between the
Cecil Bloc and the Milner Group, but it is notable that the members of
the former who were later clearly members of the latter were generally
in the fields in which Milner was most interested. In general, Milner
and his Group dominated Lloyd George during the period from 1917 to

War and Peace: 1915-1920 / 143

1921. As Prime Minister, Lloyd George had three members of the
Group as his secretaries (P. H. Kerr, 1916-1922; W. G. S. Adams,
1916-1919; E. W. M. Grigg, 1921-1922) and Waldorf Astor as his
parliamentary secretary (1917-1918). The chief decisions were made
by the War Cabinet and Imperial War Cabinet, whose membership
merged and fluctuated but in 1917-1918 consisted of Lloyd George,
Milner, Curzon, and Smuts — that is, two members of the Milner
Group, one of the Cecil Bloc, with the Prime Minister himself. The
secretary to these groups was Maurice Hankey (later a member of the
Milner Group), and the editor of the published reports of the War
Cabinet was W. G. S. Adams. Amery was assistant secretary, while
Meston was a member of the Imperial War Cabinet in 1917. Frederick
Liddell (Fellow of All Souls) was made First Parliamentary Counsel in
1917 and held the position for eleven years, following this post with a
fifteen-year period of service as counsel to the Speaker (1928-1943). 2

Within the various government departments a somewhat similar
situation prevailed. The Foreign Office in its topmost ranks was held
by the Cecil Bloc, with Balfour as Secretary of State (1916-1919),
followed by Curzon (1919-1924). When Balfour went to the United
States on a mission in 1917, he took along Ian Malcolm (brother-in-law
of Dougal Malcolm). Malcolm was later Balfour's private secretary at
the Peace Conference in 1919. In Washington, Balfour had as deputy
chairman to the mission R. H. Brand. In London, as we have seen,
Robert Cecil was Parliamentary Under Secretary and later Assistant
Secretary. In the Political Intelligence Department, Alfred Zimmern
was the chief figure. G. W. Prothero was director of the Historical Sec-
tion and was, like Cecil and Zimmern, chiefly concerned with the
future peace settlement. He was succeeded by J. W. Headlam-Morley,
who held the post of historical adviser from 1920 to his death in 1928.
All of these persons were members of the Cecil Bloc or Milner Group.

In the India Office we need mention only a few names, as this sub-
ject will receive a closer scrutiny later. Austen Chamberlain was Sec-
retary of State in 1915-1917 and gave the original impetus toward the
famous act of 1919. Sir Frederick Duke (a member of the Round Table
Group, whom we shall mention later) was chief adviser to
Chamberlain's successor, E. S. Montagu, and became Permanent
Under Secretary in 1920. Sir Malcolm Seton (also a member of the
Round Table Group from 1913 onward) was Assistant Under Secretary
(1919-1924) and later Deputy Under Secretary.

In blockade and shipping, Robert Cecil was Minister of Blockade
(1916-1918), while Reginald Sothern Holland organized the attack on
German trade in the earlier period (1914). M. L. Gwyer was legal ad-
viser to the Ministry of Shipping during the war and to the Ministry of
Health after the war (1917-1926), while J. Arthur Salter (later a con-

144 / The Anglo-American Establishment

tributor to The Round Table and a Fellow of All Souls for almost
twenty years) was director of ship requisitioning in 1917 and later
secretary to the Allied Maritime Transport Council and chairman of
the Allied Maritime Transport Executive (1918). After the war he was
a member of the Supreme Economic Council and general secretary to
the Reparations Commission (1919-1922).

A. H. D. R. Steel-Maitland was head of the War Trade Department
in 1917-1919, while Lord Wolmer (son of Lord Selborne and grandson
of Lord Salisbury) was assistant director in 1916-1918. Henry
Birchenough was a member or chairman of several committees dealing
with related matters. R. S. Rait was a member of the department from
its creation in 1915 to the end of the war; H. W. C. Davis was a
member in 1915 and a member of the newly created War Trade Ad-
visory Committee thereafter. Harold Butler was secretary to the
Foreign Trade Department of the Foreign Office (1916-1917). H. D.
Henderson (who has been a Fellow of All Souls since 1934) was
secretary of the Cotton Control Board (1917-1919).

The Board of Agriculture was dominated by members of the Cecil
Bloc and Milner Group. Lord Selborne was President of the board in
1915-1916, and Prothero (Lord Ernie) in 1916-1919. Milner and
Selborne were chairmen of the two important committees of the board
in 1915 and 1916. These sought to establish as a war measure (and
ultimately as a postwar measure also) government-guaranteed prices
for agricultural products at so high a level that domestic production of
adequate supplies would be insured. This had been advocated by
Milner for many years but was not obtained on a permanent basis until
after 1930, although used on a temporary basis in 1917-1919. The
membership of these committees was largely made up of members of
the Cecil Bloc. The second Viscount Goschen (son of Milner 's old friend
and grandfather-in-law of Milner's step-grandson) was Parliamentary
Secretary to the Board; Lord Astor was chairman of a dependent com-
mittee on milk supplies; Sothern Holland was controller of the Cultiva-
tion Department within the Food Production Department of the board
(1918); Mrs. Alfred Lyttelton was deputy director of the Women's
Branch; Lady Alicia Cecil was assistant director of horticulture in the
Food Production Department; and Edward Strutt (brother-in-law of
Balfour), who had been a member of both the Milner and Selborne
Committees, was technical adviser to Prothero during his term as Presi-
dent and was the draftsman of the Corn Production Act of 1917. He
later acted as one of Milner's assistants in the effort to establish a tariff
in 1923. His sketch in the Dictionary of National Biography was writ-
ten by his nephew (and Balfour's nephew) Lord Rayleigh.

In the Colonial Office, Milner was Secretary of State in 1918-1921;
George Fiddes (of the Milner Kindergarten) was Permanent Under

War and Peace: 1915-1920 / 145

Secretary in 1916-1921; Steel-Maitland was Parliamentary Under
Secretary in 1915-1917; while Amery was in the same position in
1919-1921.

In intelligence and public information, we find John Buchan as head
of the Information Department of the War Office, with John Dove and
B. H. Sumner (the present Warden of All Souls) in military in-
telligence. H. W. C. Davis was general editor of the Oxford Pamphlets
justifying Britain's role in the war, while Algernon Cecil (nephew of
Lord Salisbury) was in the intelligence division of the Admiralty and
later in the historical section of the Foreign Office. J. W. Headlam-
Morley was adviser on all historical matters at Wellington House (the
propaganda department) in 1915-1918 and assistant director of
political intelligence in the Department of Information in 1917-1918,
ultimately being shifted to similar work in the Foreign Office in 1918.

In the War Office, Milner was Secretary of State in 1918, while
Amery was assistant to the Secretary from 1917 until Milner took him
to the Colonial Office a year or so later.

This enumeration, by no means complete, indicates the all-pervasive
influence of this small clique in the later years of the war. This in-
fluence was not devoted exclusively to winning the war, and, as time
went on, it was directed increasingly toward the postwar settlement.
As a result, both groups tended more and more to concentrate in the
Foreign Office. There G. W. Prothero, an old member of the Cecil
Bloc, was put in charge of the preparations for the future peace con-
ference. Depending chiefly on his own branch of the Foreign Office
(the Historical Section), but also using men and materials from the
War Trade Intelligence Department and the Intelligence Section of the
Admiralty, he prepared a large number of reports on questions that
might arise at the Peace Conference (1917-1919). In 1920, 155 volumes
of these reports were published under the title Peace Handbooks. A
glance at any complete list of these will show that a very large number
of the "experts" who wrote them were from the Cecil Bloc and Milner
Group. About the same time, Phillimore and Zimmern prepared drafts
for the organization of the future League of Nations. Most of the group
went en masse to the Peace Conference at Paris as expert advisers, and
anyone familar with the history of the Peace Conference cannot fail to
recognize names which we have mentioned frequently. At about this
time, Lloyd George began to get out of hand as far as the Milner Group
was concerned, and doubtless also as far as the Cecil Bloc was con-
cerned. Some of this was caused by the weakness of Balfour, titular
head of the latter group, but much more was caused by the fact that
the Group could not control Lloyd George either in his electoral cam-
paign in December 1918 or in his negotiations in the Council of Four
from March to June 1919. Lloyd George was perfectly willing to use

146 / The Anglo-American Establishment

the abilities of the Milner Group in administration, but, when it came
to an appeal to the electorate, as in the "khaki election," he had no
respect for the Group's judgment or advice. Lloyd George realized that
the electorate was hysterical with hatred of Germany, and was willing
to appeal to that feeling if he could ride into office again on its impetus.
The Milner Group, on the other hand, was eager to get rid of the
Kaiser, the Prussian officers' corps, and even the Junker landlords, but,
once Germany was defeated, their feeling of animosity against her
(which had waxed strong since before 1896) vanished. By 1919 they
began to think in terms of balance of power and of the need to
reconstruct Germany against the dangers of "bolshevism" on one hand
and of "French militarism" on the other, and they felt that if Germany
were made democratic and treated in a friendly fashion she could be
incorporated into the British world system as well as the Cape Boers
had been. The intellectual climate of the Milner Group early in 1919
has been described by a man who was, at this time, close to the Group,
Harold Nicolson, in his volume Peacemaking, 1919.

This point of view was never thoroughly thought out by the Group.
It was apparently based on the belief that if Germany were treated in a
conciliatory fashion she could be won from her aggressive attitudes and
become a civilized member of the British world system . This may have
been possible, but, if so, the plan was very badly executed, because the
aggressive elements in Germany were not eliminated and the con-
ciliatory elements were not encouraged in a concrete fashion. This
failure, however, was partly caused by the pressure of public opinion,
by the refusal of the French to accept this concept as an adequate goal
of foreign policy, and by the failure to analyze the methods of the
policy in a sound and adequate fashion. The first step toward this
policy was made by Milner himself as early as October 1918, when he
issued a warning not to denounce "the whole German nation as
monsters of iniquity" or to carry out a policy of punishment and
reprisal against them." The outburst of public indignation at this senti-
ment was so great that "the whole band of men who had learned under
him in South Africa to appreciate his patriotism united to testify to him
their affectionate respect." This quotation from one of the band, Basil
Williams, refers to a testimonial given by the Group to their leader in
1918.

Another evidence of this feeling will be found in a volume of Alfred
Zimmern's, published in 1922 under the title Europe in Convalescence
and devoted to regretting Britain's postwar policies and especially the
election of 1918. Strangely enough, Zimmern, although most articulate
in this volume, was basically more anti-German than the other
members of the Group and did not share their rather naive belief that
the Germans could be redeemed merely by the victors tossing away the

War and Peace: 1915-1920 / 147

advantages of victory. Zimmern had a greater degree of sympathy for
the French idea that the Germans should give more concrete examples
of a reformed spirit before they were allowed to run freely in civilized
society. 3 Halifax, on the other hand, was considerably more influenced
by popular feeling in 1918 and years later. He shared the public
hysteria against Germany in 1918 to a degree which he later wished to
forget, just as in 1937 he shared the appeasement policy toward Ger-
many to a degree he would now doubtless want to forget. Both of these
men, however were not of the inner circle of the Milner Group. The
sentiments of that inner circle, men like Kerr, Brand, and Dawson, can
be found in the speeches of the first, The Times editorials of the last,
and the articles of The Round Table. They can also be seen in the let-
ters of John Dove. The latter, writing to Brand, 4 October 1923,
stated: "It seems to me that the most disastrous affect of Poincare's
policy would be the final collapse of democracy in Germany, the risk of
which has been pointed out in The Round Table. The irony of the
whole situation is that if the Junkers should capture the Reich again,
the same old antagonisms will revive and we shall find ourselves, willy-
nilly, lined up again with France to avert a danger which French
action has again called into being. . . . Even if Smuts follows up his
fine speech, the situation may have changed so much before the Im-
perial Conference is over that people who think like him and us may
find themselves baffled. ... I doubt if we shall again have as good a
chance of getting a peaceful democracy set up in Germany."

9

The Creation of
the Commonwealth

The evolution of the British Empire into the Commonwealth of
Nations is to a very great extent a result of the activities of the Milner
Group. To be sure, the ultimate goal of the Group was quite different
from the present system, since they wanted a federation of the Empire,
but this was a long-run goal, and en route they accepted the present
system as a temporary way station. However, the strength of colonial
and Dominion feeling, which made the ideal of federation admittedly
remote at all times, has succeeded in making this way-station a perma-
nent terminal and thus had eliminated, apparently forever, the hope
for federation. With the exception of a few diehards (of whom Milner
and Curtis were the leaders), the Group has accepted the solution of
imperial cooperation and "parallelism" as an alternative to federation.
This was definitely stated in The Round Table of December 1920. In
that issue the Group adopted the path of cooperation as its future
policy and added: "Its [The Round Table's] promoters in this country
feel bound to state that all the experience of the war and of the peace
has not shaken in the least the fundamental conviction with which they
commenced the publication of this Review. . . . The Round Table has
never expressed an opinion as to the form which this constitutional
organization would take, nor as to the time when it should be under-
taken. But it has never disguised its conviction that a cooperate system
would eventually break down." In September 1935, in a review of its
first twenty-five years, the journal stated: "Since the war, therefore,
though it has never abandoned its view that the only final basis for
freedom and enduring peace is the organic union of nations in a
commonwealth embracing the whole world or, in the first instance, a
lesser part of it, The Round Table has been a consistent supporter . . .
of the principles upon which the British Empire now rests, as set forth
in the Balfour Memorandum of 1926. ... It has felt that only by trying
the cooperation method to the utmost and realizing its limitations in
practice would nations within or without the British Empire be
148

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 149

brought to face the necessity for organic union."

There apparently exists within the Milner Group a myth to the effect
that they invented the expression "Commonwealth of Nations," that it
was derived from Zimmern's book The Greek Commonwealth
(published in 1911) and first appeared in public in the title of Curtis's
book in 1916. This is not quite accurate, for the older imperialists of the
Cecil Bloc had used the term "commonwealth" in reference to the
British Empire on various occasions as early as 1884. In that year, in a
speech at Adelaide, Australia, Lord Rosebery referred to the possibility
of New Zealand seceding from the Empire and added: "God forbid.
There is no need for any nation, however great, leaving the Empire,
because the Empire is a Commonwealth of Nations."

If the Milner Group did not invent the term, they gave it a very
definite and special meaning, based on Zimmern's book, and they
popularized the use of the expression. According to Zimmern, the
expression "commonwealth" referred to a community based on free-
dom and the rule of law, in distinction to a government based on au-
thority or even arbitrary tyranny. The distinction was worked out in
Zimmern's book in the contrast between Athens, as described in
Pericles's funeral oration, and Sparta (or the actual conduct of the
Athenian empire). As applied to the modern world, the contrast was
between the British government, as described by Dicey, and the
despotisms of Philip II, Wilhelm II, and Nicholas II. In this sense of the
word, commonwealth was not originally an alternative to federation,
as it later became, since it referred to the moral qualities of govern-
ment, and these could exist within either a federated or a nonfederated
Empire.

The expression "British Commonwealth of Nations" was, then, not
invented by the Group but was given a very special meaning and was
propagated in this sense until it finally became common usage. The
first step in this direction was taken on 15 May 1917, when General
Smuts, at a banquet in his honor in the Houses of Parliament, used the
expression. This banquet was apparently arranged by the Milner
Group, and Lord Milner sat at Smuts's right hand during the speech.
The speech itself was printed and given the widest publicity, being
disseminated throughout Great Britain, the Commonwealth, the
United States, and the rest of the world. In retrospect, some persons
have believed that Smuts was rejecting the meaning of the expression as
used by the Milner Group, because he did reject the project for
imperial federation in this speech. This, however, is a mistake, for, as
we have said, the expression "commonwealth" at that time had a
meaning which could include either federation or cooperation among
the members of the British imperial system. The antithesis in meaning
between federation and commonwealth is a later development which

150 / The Anglo- American Establishment

took place outside the Group. To this day, men like Curtis, Amery, and
Grigg still use the term "commonwealth" as applied to a federated
Empire, and they always define the word "commonwealth" as "a
government of liberty under the law" and not as an arrangement of in-
dependent but cooperating states.

The development of the British Empire into the Commonwealth of
Nations and the role which the Milner Group played in this develop-
ment cannot be understood by anyone who feels that federation and
commonwealth were mutually exclusive ideas.

In fact, there were not two ideas, but three, and they were not
regarded by the Group as substitutes for each other but as supplements
to each other. These three ideas were: (1) the creation of a common
ideology and world outlook among the peoples of the United Kingdom,
the Empire, and the United States; (2) the creation of instruments and
practices of cooperation among these various communities in order
that they might pursue parallel policies; and (3) the creation of a
federation on an imperial, Anglo-American, or world basis. The
Milner Group regarded these as supplementary to one another and
worked vigorously for all of them, without believing that they were
mutually exclusive alternatives. They always realized, even the most
fanatical of them, that federation, even of the Empire only, was very
remote. They always, in this connection, used such expressions as "not
in our lifetime" or "not in the present century." They always insisted
that the basic unity of any system must rest on common ideology, and
they worked in this direction through the Rhodes Scholarships, the
Round Table Groups, and the Institutes of International Affairs, even
when they were most ardently seeking to create organized constitu-
tional relationships. And in these constitutional relationships they
worked equally energetically and simultaneously for imperial federa-
tion and for such instruments of cooperation as conferences of Prime
Ministers of Dominions. The idea, which seems to have gained cur-
rency, that the Round Table Group was solely committed to federation
and that the failure of this project marked the defeat and eclipse of the
Group is erroneous. On the contrary, by the 1930s, the Round Table
Group was working so strongly for a common ideology and for institu-
tions of cooperation that many believers in federation regarded them as
defeatist. For this reason, some believers in federation organized a new
movement called the "World Commonwealth Movement." Evidence of
this movement is an article by Lord Davies in The Nineteenth Century
and After for January 1935, called "Round Table or World Com-
monwealth?" This new movement was critical of the foreign policy
rather than the imperial policy of the Round Table Group, especially
its policy of appeasement toward Germany and of weakening the
League of Nations, and its belief that Britain could find security in

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 151

isolation from the Continent and a balance-of-power policy supported
by the United Kingdom, the Dominions, and the United States.

The effort of the Round Table Group to create a common ideology to
unite the supporters of the British way of life appears in every aspect of
their work. It was derived from Rhodes and Milner and found its most
perfect manifestation in the Rhodes Scholarships. As a result of these
and of the Milner Group's control of so much of Oxford, Oxford tended
to become an international university. Here the Milner Group had to
tread a narrow path between the necessity of training non-English
(including Americans and Indians) in the English way of life and the
possibility of submerging that way of life completely (at Oxford, at
least) by admitting too many non-English to its cloistered halls. On the
whole, this path was followed with considerable success, as will be
realized by anyone who has had any experience with Rhodes Scholars.
To be sure, the visitors from across the seas picked up the social customs
of the English somewhat more readily than they did the English ideas
of playing the game or the English ideas of politics, but, on the whole,
the experiment of Rhodes, Milner, and Lothian cannot be called a
failure. It was surely a greater success in the United States than it was
in the Dominions or in India, for in the last, at least, the English idea of
liberty was assimilated much more completely than the idea of loyalty
to England.

The efforts of the Milner Group to encourage federation of the
Empire have already been indicated. They failed and, indeed, were
bound to fail, as most members of the Group soon realized. As early as
1903, John Buchan and Joseph Chamberlain had given up the attempt.
By 1917, even Curtis had accepted the idea that federation was a very
remote possibility, although in his case, at least, it remained as the
beckoning will-o-the-wisp by which all lesser goals were measured and
found vaguely dissatisfying. '

The third string to the bow — imperial cooperation — remained. It
became in time the chief concern of the Group. The story of these
efforts is a familiar one, and no attempt will be made here to repeat it.
We are concerned only with the role played by the Milner Group in
these efforts. In general this role was very large, if not decisive.

The proposals for imperial cooperation had as their basic principle
the assumption that communities which had a common ideology
could pursue parallel courses toward the same goal merely by consulta-
tion among their leaders. For a long time, the Milner Group did not see
that the greater the degree of success obtained by this method, the
more remote was the possibility that federation could ever be attained.
It is very likely that the Group was misled in this by the fact that they
were for many years extremely fortunate in keeping members of the
Group in positions of power and influence in the Dominions. As long as

152 / The Anglo-American Establishment

men like Smuts, Botha (who did what Smuts wanted), Duncan,
Feetham, or Long were in influential positions in South Africa; as long
as men like Eggleston, Bavin, or Dudley Braham were influential in
Australia; as long as men like Glazebrook, Massey, Joseph Flavelle, or
Percy Corbett were influential in Canada — in a nutshell, as long as
members of the Milner Group were influential throughout the Domin-
ions, the technique of the parallel policy of cooperation would be the
easiest way to reach a common goal. Unfortunately, this was not a
method that could be expected to continue forever, and when the
Milner Group grew older and weaker, it could not be expected that
their newer recruits in England (like Hodson, Coupland, Astor, Wood-
ward, Elton, and others) could continue to work on a parallel policy
with the newer arrivals to power in the Dominions. When that un-
happy day arrived, the Milner Group should have had institutionalized
modes of procedure firmly established. They did not, not because they
did not want them, but because their members in the Dominions could
not have remained in influential positions if they had insisted on
creating institutionalized links with Britain when the people of the
Dominions obviously did not want such links.

The use of Colonial or Imperial Conferences as a method for
establishing closer contact with the various parts of the Empire was
originally established by the Cecil Bloc and taken over by the Milner
Group. The first four such Conferences (in 1887, 1897, 1902, and 1907)
were largely dominated by the former group, although they were not
technically in power during the last one. The decisive changes made in
the Colonial Conference system at the Conference of 1907 were worked
out by a secret group, which consulted on the plans for eighteen
months and presented them to the Royal Colonial Institute in April
1905. These plans were embodied in a dispatch from the Colonial
Secretary, Alfred Lyttelton, and carried out at the Conference of 1907.
As a result, it was established that the name of the meeting was to be
changed to Imperial Conference; it was to be called into session every
four years; it was to consist of Prime Ministers of the self-governing
parts of the Empire; the Colonial Secretary was to be eliminated from
the picture; and a new Dominion Department, under Sir Charles
Lucas, was to be set up in the Colonial Office. As the future Lord
Lothian wrote in The Round Table in 1911, the final result was to
destroy the hopes for federation by recognizing the separate existence
of the Dominions. 2

At the Conference of 1907, at the suggestion of Haldane, there was
created a Committee of Imperial Defence, and a plan was adopted to
organize Dominion defense forces on similar patterns, so that they
could be integrated in an emergency. The second of these proposals,
which led to a complete reorganization of the armies of New Zealand,

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 153

Australia, and South Africa in 1909-1912, with very beneficial results
in the crisis of 1914-1918, is not of immediate concern to us. The Com-
mittee of Imperial Defence and its secretarial staff were creations of
Lord Esher, who had been chairman of a special committee to reform
the War Office in 1903 and was permanent member of the Committee
of Imperial Defence from 1905 to his death. As a result of his influence,
the secretariat of this committee became a branch of the Milner Group
and later became the secretariat of the Cabinet itself, when that body
first obtained a secretariat in 1917.

From this secretarial staff the Milner Group obtained three recruits
in the period after 1918. These were Maurice Hankey, Ernest Swinton,
and W. G. A. Ormsby-Gore (now Lord Harlech). Hankey was assistant
secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence from 1908 to 1912 and
was secretary from 1912 to 1938. Swinton was assistant secretary from
1917 to 1925. Both became members of the Milner Group, Hankey
close to the inner circle, Swinton in one of the less central rings.
Ormsby-Gore was an assistant secretary in 1917-1918 at the same time
that he was private secretary to Lord Milner. All three of these men are
of sufficient importance to justify a closer examination of their careers.

Maurice Pascal Alers Hankey (Sir Maurice after 1916, Baron Hankey
since 1939), whose family was related by marriage to the Wyndhams,
was born in 1877 and joined the Royal Marines when he graduated
from Rugby in 1895. He retired from that service in 1918 as a lieu-
tenant colonel and was raised to colonel on the retired list in 1929. He
was attached for duty with the Naval Intelligence Department in 1902
and by this route reached the staff of the Committee of Imperial
Defence six years later. In 1917, when it was decided to give the
Cabinet a secretariat for the first time, and to create the Imperial War
Cabinet by adding overseas representatives to the British War Cabinet
(a change in which Milner played the chief role), the secretariat of the
Committee of Imperial Defence became also the secretariat of the
other two bodies. At the same time, as we have seen, the Prime
Minister was given a secretariat consisting of two members of the
Milner Group (Kerr and Adams). In this way Hankey became secretary
and Swinton assistant secretary to the Cabinet, the former holding that
post, along with the parallel post in the Committee of Imperial
Defence, until 1938. It was undoubtedly through Hankey and the
Milner Group that Swinton became Chichele Professor of Military
History and a Fellow of All Souls in 1925. As for Hankey himself, he
became one of the more significant figures in the Milner Group, close
to the inner circle and one of the most important (although relatively
little-known) figures in British history of recent times. He was clerk of
the Privy Council in 1923-1938; he was secretary to the British delega-
tion at the Peace Conference of 1919, at the Washington Conference of

154 / The Anglo-American Establishment

1921, at the Genoa Conference of 1922, and at the London Reparations
Conference of 1924. He was secretary general of the Hague Conference
of 1929-1930, of the London Naval Conference of 1930, and of the
Lausanne Conference of 1932. He was secretary general of the British
Imperial Conferences of 1921, 1923, 1926, 1930, and 1937. He retired
in 1938, but became a member of the Permanent Mandates Commis-
sion (succeeding Lord Hailey) in 1939. He was British government
director of the Suez Canal Company in 1938-1939, Minister without
Portfolio in 1939-1940, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in
1940-1941, Paymaster General in 1941-1942, chairman of the Scien-
tific Advisory Committee and of the Engineering Advisory Committee
in 1942-1943. At the present time he is a director of the Suez Canal
Company (since 1945), chairman of the Technical Personnel Commit-
tee (since 1941), chairman of the Interdepartmental Committee on
Further Education and Training and of the Committee on Higher Ap-
pointments in the Civil Service (since 1944), and chairman of the Co-
lonial Products Research Committee (since 1942). Hankey, in 1903,
married Adeline de Smidt, daughter of a well-known South African
political figure. His oldest son, Robert, is now a First Secretary in the
diplomatic service, while his daughter, Ursula, has been married since
1929 to John A. Benn, chairman of the board of Benn Brothers,
publishers.

Hankey was Lord Esher's chief protege in the Milner Group and in
British public life. They were in constant communication with one
another, and Esher gave Hankey a constant stream of advice about his
conduct in his various official positions. The following scattered
examples can be gleaned from the published Journals and Letters of
Reginald, Viscount Esher. On 18 February 1919, Esher wrote Hankey,
advising him not to accept the position as Secretary General of the
League of Nations. On 7 December 1919, he gave him detailed advice
on how to conduct himself as secretary to the Conference of Dominion
Prime Ministers, telling him to work for "a League of Empire" based on
cooperation and not on any "rigid constitutional plan," to try to get an
Imperial General Staff, and to use the Defence Committee as such a
staff in the meantime. In 1929, when Ramsay MacDonald tried to
exclude Hankey from a secret Cabinet meeting, Esher went so far in
support of his protege as to write a letter of admonition to the Prime
Minister. This letter, dated 21 July 1929, said: "What is this I see
quoted from a London paper that you are excluding your Secretary
from Cabinet meetings? It probably is untrue, for you are the last
person in the world to take a retrograde step toward 'secrecy' whether
in diplomacy or government. The evolution of our Cabinet system
from 'Cabal' has been slow but sure. When the Secretary to the
Cabinet became an established factor in conducting business, almost

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 155

the last traces of Mumbo Jumbo, cherished from the days when
Bolingbroke was a danger to public peace, disappeared."

Hankey was succeeded as secretary of the Cabinet in 1938 by
Edward E. Bridges, who has been close to the Milner Group since he
became a Fellow of All Souls in 1920. Bridges, son of the late Poet
Laureate Robert Bridges, had the advantages of a good education at
Eton and Magdalen. He was a Treasury civil servant from 1919, was
knighted in 1939, and since 1945 has combined with his Cabinet posi-
tion the exalted post of Permanent Secretary of the Treasury and head
of His Majesty's Civil Service.

The Imperial Conference of 1911 has little concern with our story,
although Asquith's opening speech could have been written in the
office of The Round Table. Indeed, it is quoted with approval by
Lionel Curtis in his The Problem of the Commonwealth, published five
years later. Asquith pointed out that the Empire rested on three foun-
dations: (a) the reign of law, in Dicey 's sense, (b) local autonomy, and
(c) trusteeship of the interests and fortunes of fellow subjects who have
not yet attained "to the full stature of self-government." He then
pointed out the two principles of centralization and disintegration
which had applied to the Empire in the early Victorian period, and
declared: "Neither of these theories commands the faintest support
today, either at home or in any part of our self-governing Empire. . . .
Whether in this United Kingdom or in any one of the great com-
munities which you represent, we each of us are, and we each of us
intend to remain, master in our own household. This is, here at home
and throughout the Dominions, the lifeblood of our polity." Thus
spoke Asquith, and even the ultra-federalist Curtis approved. He also
approved when Asquith squelched Sir John Ward's suggestion for the
creation of an Imperial Council, although doubtless from quite a
different motivation.

At the Conference of 1911, as is well known, the overseas members
were for the first time initiated into the mysteries of high policy,
because of the menace of Germany. Except for this, which paid high
dividends in 1914, the Conference was largely wasted motion.

The Conference of 1915 was not held, because of the war, but as
soon as Milner came into the government in December 1915, The
Round Table's argument that the war should be used as a means for
consolidating the Empire, rather than as an excuse for postponing con-
solidation, began to take effect. The Round Table during 1915 was
agitating for an immediate Imperial Conference with Indian partici-
pation for the first time. As soon as Milner joined the Cabinet in
December 1915, he sent out cables to the Dominions and to India,
inviting them to come. It was Milner also who created the Imperial
War Cabinet by adding Dominion members to the British War

156 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Cabinet. These developments were foretold and approved by The
Round Table. In its June 1917 issue it said, in the course of a long arti-
cle on "New Developments in the Constitution of the Empire":

At a date which cannot be far distant an Imperial Conference will
assemble, the purpose of which will be to consider what further steps
can be taken to transform the Empire of a State in which the main respon-
sibilities and burdens of its common affairs are sustained and controlled
by the United Kingdom into a commonwealth of equal nations conduct-
ing its foreign policy and common affairs by some method of continuous
consultation and concerted action. . . . The decision today is against any
federated reconstruction after the war. ... It is evident, however, that
the institution through which the improved Imperial system will chiefly
work will be the newly constituted Imperial Cabinet. The Imperial
Cabinet will be different in some important respects from the Imperial
Conference. It will meet annually instead of once in four years. It will be
concerned more particularly with foreign policy, which the Imperial
Conference has never yet discussed. ... Its proceedings will consequendy
be secret. ... It will also consist of the most important British Ministers
sitting in conclave with the Overseas Ministers instead of the Secretary of
State for the Colonies alone as has been usually the case hitherto.

As is well known, the Imperial War Cabinet met fourteen times in
1917, met again in 1918, and assembled at Paris in 1918-1919 as the
British Empire delegation to the Peace Conference. Parallel with it, the
Imperial War Conference met in London in 1917, under the Colonial
Secretary, to discuss nonwar problems. At the meetings of the former
body it was decided to hold annual meetings in the future and to invite
the Dominions to establish resident ministers in London to insure
constant consultation. At a meeting in 1917 was drawn up the famous
Imperial Resolution, which excluded federation as a solution of the
imperial problem and recognized the complete equality of the Domin-
ions and the United Kingdom under one King. These developments
were not only acceptable to Milner but apparently were largely engi-
neered by him. On 9 July 1919, he issued a formal statement contain-
ing the sentences, "The only possibility of a continuance of the British
Empire is on a basis of absolute-out-and-out-equal partnership be-
tween the United Kingdom and the Dominions. I say that without any
kind of reservation whatever."

When Milner died, in May 1925, The Times obituary had this to say
about this portion of his life:

With the special meeting of the War Cabinet attended by the Dominion
Prime Ministers which, beginning on March 20, came to be distinguished
as the Imperial War Cabinet . . . Milner was more closely concerned than
any other British statesman. The conception of the Imperial War
Cabinet and the actual proposal to bring the Dominion Premiers into the

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 157

United Kingdom Cabinet were his. And when, thanks to Mr. Lloyd
George's ready acceptance of the proposal, Milner's conception was real-
ized, it proved to be not only a solution of the problem of Imperial
Administrative unity in its then transient but most urgent phase, but a
permanent and far-reaching advance in the constitutional evolution of
the Empire. It met again in 1918, and was continued as the British
Empire Delegation in the peace negotiations at Versailles in 1919. Thus,
at the moment of its greatest need, the Empire was furnished by Milner
with a common Executive. For the Imperial War Cabinet could and did,
take executive action, and its decisions bound the Empire at large. 3

It was also Milner who insisted on and made the arrangements for
the Imperial Conference of 1921, acting in his capacity as Colonial
Secretary, although he was forced, by reason of poor health, to resign
before the conference assembled. It was in this period as Colonial
Secretary that Milner, assisted by Amery, set up the plans for the new
"dyarchic" constitution for Malta, gave Egypt its full freedom, set
Curtis to work on the Irish problem, and gave Canada permission to
establish its own legation in the United States — the latter post filled
only in 1926, and then by the son-in-law of Milner's closest col-
laborator in the Rhodes Trust.

The Imperial Conferences of 1921 and 1923 were largely in the
control of the Cecil Bloc, at least so far as the United Kingdom delega-
tion was concerned. Three of the five members of this delegation in
1921 were from this Bloc (Balfour, Curzon, and Austen Chamberlain),
the other two being Lloyd George and Winston Churchill. Of the
members of the other five delegations, only Smuts, from South Africa,
is of significance to us. On the secretarial staff for the United Kingdom
delegation, we might point out the presence of Hankey and Grigg.

In the Imperial Conference of 1923 we find a similar situation.
Three of the four delegates from the United Kingdom were of the Cecil
Bloc (Lord Salisbury, Curzon, and the Duke of Devonshire), the other
being Prime Minister Baldwin. Smuts again led the South African
delegation. The secretarial staff was headed by Hankey, while the
separate Indian secretarial group was led by L. F. Rushbrook Wil-
liams. The latter, whom we have already mentioned, had been asso-
ciated with the Milner Group since he was elected a Fellow of All Souls
in 1914, had done special work in preparation of the Government of
India Act of 1919, and worked under Marris in applying that act after
it became law. His later career carried him to various parts of the
Milner Group's extensive system, as can be seen from the fact that he
was a delegate to the Assembly of the League of Nations in 1925,
Foreign Minister of Patiala State in 1925-1931, a member of the Indian
Round Table Conference in 1920-1932, a significant figure in the
British Broadcasting Corporation and the Ministry of Information in

158 / The Anglo-American Establishment

delegation. There is nothing to indicate that Mr. Latham (later Sir
John) was a member of the Milner Group, but in later years his son,
Richard, clearly was. Sir John had apparently made his first contact
with the Milner Group in 1919, when he, a Professor of Law at the
University of Melbourne, was a member of the staff of the Australian
delegation to the Paris Peace Conference and, while there, became an
assistant secretary to the British delegation. In 1922, at the age of forty-
five, he began a twelve-year term as an Australian M. P. During that
brief period he was Attorney General in 1925-1929, Minister of
Industry in 1928-1929, Leader of the Opposition in 1929-1931, Deputy
Leader of the Majority in 1931-1932, and Deputy Prime Minister,
Attorney General, and Minister for Industry in 1932-1934. In addition,
he was British secretary to the Allied Commission on Czechoslovak
Affairs in 1919, first president of the League of Nations Union,
Australian delegate to the League of Nations in 1926 and 1932,
Australian representative to the World Disarmament Conference in
1932, Chancellor of the University of Melbourne in 1939-1941;
Australian Minister of Japan in 1940-1941, and vice-president of the
the period 1932-1944, and is now a member of the editorial staff of The
Times.

At these two conferences, various members of the Cecil Bloc and
Milner Group were called in for consultation on matters within their
competence. Of these persons, we might mention the names of H. A. L.
Fisher, Sir Eyre Crowe, Sir Cecil Hurst, Robert Cecil, Leopold Amery,
Samuel Hoare, and Sir Fabian Ware (of the Kindergarten).

The Imperial Conference of 1926 is generally recognized as one of
the most important of the postwar period. The Cecil Bloc and Milner
Group again had three out of five members of the United Kingdom
delegation (Balfour, Austen Chamberlain, and Leopold Amery), with
Baldwin and Churchill the other two. Hankey was, as usual, secretary
of the conference. Of the other seven delegations, nothing is germane
to our investigation except that Vincent Massey was an adviser to the
Canadian, and John Greig Latham was a member of the Australian,
Australian Red Cross in 1944. Since 1934, he has been Chief Justice of
Australia. In this brilliant, if belated, career, Sir John came into con-
tact with the Milner Group, and this undoubtedly assisted his son,
Richard, in his more precocious career. Richard Latham was a Rhodes
Scholar at Oxford until 1933 and a Fellow of All Souls from 1935. He
wrote the supplementary legal chapter in W. K. Hancock's Survey of
British Commonwealth Affairs and was one of the chief advisers of
K. C. Wheare in his famous book, The Statute of Westminister and
Dominion Status (1938). Unfortunately, Richard Latham died a few
years later while still in his middle thirties. It is clear from Professor
Wheare's book that Sir John Latham, although a member of the

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 159

opposition at the time, was one of the chief figures in Australia's accep-
tance of the Statute of Westminster.

The new status of the Dominions, as enunciated in the Report of the
conference and later known as the "Balfour Declaration," was
accepted by the Milner Group both in The Round Table and in The
Times. In the latter, on 22 November 1926, readers were informed that
the "Declaration" merely described the Empire as it was, with nothing
really new except the removal of a few anachronisms. It concluded: "In
all its various clauses there is hardly a statement or a definition which
does not coincide with familiar practice."

The Imperial Conference of 1930 was conducted by a Labour
government and had no members of the Cecil Bloc or Milner Group
among its chief delegates. Sir Maurice Hankey, however, was secretary
of the conference, and among its chief advisers were Maurice Gwyer
and H. D. Henderson. Both of these were members of All Souls and
probably close to the Milner Group.

The Imperial Conference of 1937 was held during the period in
which the Milner Group was at the peak of its power. Of the eight
members of the United Kingdom delegation, five were from the Milner
Group (Lord Halifax, Sir John Simon, Malcolm MacDonald, W. G. A.
Ormsby-Gore, and Sir Samuel Hoare). The others were Baldwin,
Neville Chamberlain, and J. Ramsay MacDonald. In addition, the
chief of the Indian delegation was the Marquess of Zetland of the Cecil
Bloc. Sir Maurice Hankey was secretary of the conference, and among
the advisers were Sir Donald Somervell (of All Souls and the Milner
Group), Vincent Massey, Sir Fabian Ware, and the Marquess of
Hartington.

In addition to the Imperial Conferences, where the influence of
the Milner Group was probably more extensive than appears from the
membership of the delegations, the Group was influential in the ad-
ministration of the Commonwealth, especially in the two periods of
its greatest power, from 1924 to 1929 and from 1935 to 1939. An
indication of this can be seen in the fact that the office of Colonial
Secretary was held by the Group for seven out of ten years from 1919 to
1929 and for five out of nine years from 1931 to 1940, while the office
of Dominion Secretary was held by a member of the Group for eight
out of the fourteen years from its creation in 1925 to the outbreak of the
war in 1939 (although the Labour Party was in power for two of those
years) . The Colonial Secretaries to whom we have reference were:

Lord Milner, 1919-1921
Leopold Amery, 1924-1929
Malcolm MacDonald, 1935
W. G. A. Ormsby-Gore, 1936-1938
Malcolm MacDonald, 1938-1940

160 / The Anglo-American Establishment

The Dominion Secretaries to whom we have reference were:

Leopold Amery, 1925-1929

Malcolm MacDonald, 1935-1938, 1938-1939

The lesser positions within the Colonial Office were not remote from
the Milner Group. The Permanent Under Secretary was Sir George
Fiddes of the Kindergarten in 1916-1921. In addition, James
Masterton-Smith, who had been Balfour's private secretary previously,
was Permanent Under Secretary in succession to Fiddes in 1921-1925,
and John Maffey, who had been Lord Chelmsford's secretary while the
latter was Viceroy in 1916-1921, was Permanent Under Secretary from
1933 to 1937. The position of Parliamentary Under Secretary, which
had been held by Lord Selborne in 1895-1900 and by Sir Arthur Steel-
Maitland in 1915-1917, was held by Amery in 1919-1921, by Edward
Wood (Lord Halifax) in 1921-1922, by Ormsby-Gore in 1922-1924,
1924-1929, and by Lord Dufferin (brother of Lord Blackwood of the
Kindergarten) from 1937 to 1940.

Most of these persons (probably all except Masterton-Smith, Maffey,
and Lord Dufferin) were members of the Milner Group. The most
important, of course, was Leopold Amery, whom we have already
shown as Milner 's chief political protege. We have not yet indicated
that Malcolm MacDonald was a member of the Milner Group, and
must be satisfied at this point with saying that he was a member, or at
least an instrument, of the Group, from 1931 or 1932 onward, without
ever becoming a member of the inner circle. The evidence indicating
this relationship will be discussed later.

At this point we should say a few words about W. G. A. Ormsby-
Gore (Lord Harlech since 1938), who was a member of the Cecil Bloc
by marriage and of the Milner Group by adoption. A graduate of Eton
in 1930, he went to New College as a contemporary of Philip Kerr and
Reginald Coupland. He took his degree in 1908 and was made a Fellow
of New College in 1936. A Conservative member of Parliament from
1910 until he went to the Upper House in 1938, he spent the early years
of the First World War in military intelligence, chiefly in Egypt. In
1913 he married Lady Beatrice Cecil, daughter of the fourth Marquess
of Salisbury, and four years later became Parliamentary Private
Secretary to Lord Milner as well as assistant secretary to the War
Cabinet (associated in the latter post with Hankey, Kerr, W. G. S.
Adams, and Amery of the Milner Group). Ormsby-Gore went on a mis-
sion to Palestine in 1918 and was with the British delegation at the
Paris Peace Conference as an expert on the Middle East. He was Under
Secretary for the Colonies with the Duke of Devonshire in 1922-1924
and with Leopold Amery in 1924-1929, becoming Colonial Secretary
in his own right in 1936-1938. In the interval he was Postmaster

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 161

General in 1931 and First Commissioner of Works in 1931-1936. He
was a member of the Permanent Mandates Commission (1921-1923)
and of the Colonial Office Mission to the British West Indies
(1921-1922), and was Chairman of the East African Parliamentary
Commission in 1924. He was High Commissioner of South Africa and
the three native protectorates in 1941-1944. He has been a director of
the Midland Bank and of the Standard Bank of South Africa. He was
also one of the founders of the Royal Institute of International Affairs,
a member of Lord Lothian's committee on the African Survey, and a
member of the council of the Institute.

The Milner Group also influenced Commonwealth affairs by
publicity work of great quantity and good quality. This was done
through the various periodicals controlled by the Group, such as The
Round Table, The Times, International Affairs and others; by books
published by the Royal Institute of International Affairs and individual
members of the Group; by academic and university activities by men
like Professor Coupland, Professor Zimmern, Professor Harlow, and
others; by public and private discussion meetings sponsored by the
Round Table Groups throughout the Commonwealth, by the Institute
of International Affairs everywhere, by the Institute of Pacific Rela-
tions (IPR), by the Council on Foreign Relations, by the Williamstown
Institute of Politics, by the Rhodes Scholarship group; and through the
three unofficial conferences on British Commonwealth relations held
by the Group since 1933. Some of these organizations and activities
have already been mentioned. The last will be discussed here. The rest
are to be described in Chapter 10.

The three unofficial conferences on British Commonwealth relations
were held at Toronto in 1933, at Sydney in 1938, and at London in
1945. They were initiated and controlled by the Milner Group, acting
through the various Institutes of International Affairs, in the hope that
they would contribute to the closer union of the Commonwealth by
inclining the opinion of prominent persons in the Dominions in that
direction. The plan was originated by the British Empire members of
the Institute of Pacific Relations at the Kyoto meeting in 1929. The
members from Great Britain consisted of Lord Robert Cecil, Sir
Herbert Samuel, Sir Donald Somervell, Sir John Power, P. J. Noel-
Baker, G. M. Gathome-Hardy, H. V. Hodson, H. W. Kerr, A. J.
Toynbee, J. W. Wheeler-Bennett, and A. E. Zimmern. Of these, two
were from the Cecil Bloc and five from the Milner Group. Discussion
was continued at the Shanghai meeting of the Institute of Pacific Rela-
tions in 1931, and a committee under Robert Cecil drew up an agenda
for the unofficial conference. This committee made the final
arrangements at a meeting in Chatham House in July 1932 and
published as a preliminary work a volume called Consultation and

162 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Cooperation in the British Commonwealth.

The conference was held at the University of Toronto, 11-21
September 1933, with forty-three delegates and thirty-three secre-
taries, the traveling expenses being covered by a grant from the
Carnegie Corporation. The United Kingdom delegation consisted of
the eleven names mentioned above plus R. C. M. Arnold as private
secretary to Lord Cecil and J. P. Maclay (the famous shipbuilder) as
private secretary to Sir Herbert Samuel. The Australian delegation of
six included Professor A. H. Charteris, Professor Ernest Scott, A.
Smithies (a Rhodes Scholar of 1929), Alfred Stirling (an Oxford B.A.),
W. J. V. Windeyer, and Richard Latham (a Rhodes Scholar of 1933).
The Canadian delegation consisted of N. W. Rowell, Sir Robert
Borden, Louis Cote, John W. Dafoe, Sir Robert Falconer, Sir Joseph
Flavelle, W. Sanford Evans, Vincent Massey, Rene L. Morin, J. S.
Woodsworth, W. M. Birks, Charles J. Burchell, Brooke Claxton, Percy
E. Corbett, W. P. M. Kennedy, J. J. MacDonnell (Rhodes Trustee for
Canada), and E.J. Tarr. The secretary to the delegation was George
Parkin Glazebrook (Balliol 1924). Most of these names are significant,
but we need only point out that at least four of them, including the
secretary, were members of the Milner Group (Massey, Corbett,
Flavelle, Glazebrook). The New Zealand delegation had three
members, one of which was W. Downie Stewart, and the South
African delegation had five members, including F. S. Malan and
Professor Eric A. Walker. The secretariat to the whole conference was
headed by I. S. Macadam of the Royal Institute of International
Affairs. The secretary to the United Kingdom delegation was H. V.
Hodson. Thus it would appear that the Milner Group had eight out of
forty-three delegates, as well as the secretaries to the Canadian and
United Kingdom delegations.

The conference was divided into four commissions, each of which
had a chairman and a rapporteur. In addition, the first commission (on
foreign policy) was subdivided into two subcommittees. The chairmen
of the four commissions were Robert Cecil, Vincent Massey, F. S.
Malan, and W. Downie Stewart. Thus the Milner Group had two out
of four. The rapporteurs (including the two subcommittees) were A. L.
Zimmern, H. V. Hodson, P. E. Corbett, E. A. Walker, P. J. Noel-
Baker, D. B. Somervell, and A. H. Charteris. Thus the Milner Group
had four out of seven and possibly more (as Walker may be a member
of the Group) .

The discussions at the conference were secret, the press was ex-
cluded, and in the published Proceedings, edited by A. J. Toynbee, all
remarks were presented in indirect discourse and considerably cur-
tailed, without identification of the speakers. The conference made a
number of recommendations, including the following: (1) Dominion

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 163

High Commissioners in London should be given diplomatic status with
direct access to the Foreign Office; (2) junior members of Dominion
Foreign Offices should receive a period of training in the Foreign
Office in London; (3) diplomatic representatives should be exchanged
between Dominions; (4) Commonwealth tribunals should be set up to
settle legal disputes between Dominions; (5) collective security and the
League of Nations should be supported; (6) cooperation with the
United States was advocated.

The second unofficial conference on British Commonwealth rela-
tions was held near Sydney, Australia, 3-17 September 1938. The ex-
penses were met by grants from the Carnegie Corporation and the
Rhodes Trustees. The decision to hold the second conference was made
by the British members at the Yosemite meeting of the Institute of
Pacific Relations in 1936. A committee under Viscount Samuel met at
Chatham House in June 1937 and drew up the arrangements and the
agenda. The selection of delegates was left to the various Institutes of
International Affairs. From the United Kingdom went Lord Lothian
(chairman), Lionel Curtis, W. K. Hancock, Hugh A. Wyndham, A. L.
Zimmern, Norman Bentwich, Ernest Bevin, V. A. Cazalet, A. M.
Fraser, Sir John Burnett-Stuart, Miss Grace Hadow, Sir Howard Kelly,
Sir Frederick Minter, Sir John Pratt, and James Walker. At least five
out of fifteen, including the chairman, were of the Milner Group.
From Australia came thirty-one members, including T. R. Bavin
(chairman of the delegation), K. H. Bailey (a Rhodes Scholar), and A.
H. Charteris. From Canada came fifteen, including E. J. Tarr (chair-
man of the delegation) and P. E. Corbett. From India came four In-
dians. From Ireland came five persons. From New Zealand came four-
teen, with W. Downie Stewart as chairman. From South Africa came
six, including P. Van der Byl (chairman) and G. R. Hofmeyr (an old
associate of the Milner Kindergarten in the Transvaal).

Of ninety delegates, nine were members of the Milner Group and
three others may have been. This is a small proportion, but the conduct
of the conference was well controlled. The chairmen of the three most
important delegations were of the Milner Group (Eggleston, Downie
Stewart, and Lothian); the chairman of the conference itself (Bavin)
was. The secretary of the conference was Macadam, the recorder was
Hodson, and the secretary to the press committee was Lionel Vincent
Massey (grandson of George Parkin). The Proceedings of the con-
ference were edited by Hodson, with an Introduction by Bavin, and
published by the Royal Institute of International Affairs. Again, no in-
dication was given of who said what.

The third unofficial conference on British Commonwealth relations
was similar to the others, although the war emergency restricted its
membership to persons who were already in London. As background

164 / The Anglo-American Establishment

material it prepared sixty-two books and papers, of which many are
now published. Among these was World War; Its Cause and Cure by
Lionel Curtis. The committee on arrangements and agenda, with Lord
Astor as chairman, met in New York in January 1944. The delegations
outside the United Kingdom were made up of persons doing war duty
in London, with a liberal mixture of Dominion Rhodes Scholars. The
chairmen of the various delegations included Professor K. H. Bailey
from Australia, E. J. Tarr from Canada, Sir Sardar E. Singh from
India, W. P. Morrell (whom we have already seen as a Beit Lecturer, a
Rhodes Scholar, and a co-editor with the Reverend K. N. Bell of All
Souls), Professor S. H. Frankel from South Africa, and Lord Hailey
from the United Kingdom. There were also observers from Burma and
Southern Rhodesia. Of the fifty-three delegates, sixteen were from the
United Kingdom. Among these were Lord Hailey, Lionel Curtis, V. T.
Harlow, Sir Frederick Whyte, A. G. B. Fisher, John Coatman, Miss
Kathleen Courtney, Viscount Hinchingbrooke, A. Creech Jones, Sir
Walter Layton, Sir Henry Price, Miss Heather Harvey, and others. Of
the total of fifty-three members, no more than five or six were of the
Milner Group. The opening speech to the conference was made by
Lord Robert Cecil, and the Proceedings were published in the usual
form under the editorship of Robert Frost, research secretary of the
Royal Institute of International Affairs and author of the imperial sec-
tions of The History of the Times.

In all the various activities of the Milner Group in respect to Com-
monwealth affairs, it is possible to discern a dualistic attitude. This at-
titude reveals a wholehearted public acceptance of the existing con-
stitutional and political relationships of Great Britain and the
Dominions, combined with an intense secret yearning for some form of
closer union. The realization that closer union was not politically
feasible in a democratic age in which the majority of persons, espe-
cially in the Dominions, rejected any effort to bind the various parts of
the Empire together explains this dualism. The members of the Group,
as The Round Table pointed out in 1919, were not convinced of the ef-
fectiveness or workability of any program of Dominion relations based
solely on cooperation without any institutional basis, but publicly, and
in the next breath, the Group wholeheartedly embraced all the
developments that destroyed one by one the legal and institutional
links which bound the Dominions to the mother country. In one special
field after another — in defense, economic cooperation, raw materials
conservation, war graves, intellectual cooperation, health measures,
etc., etc. —the Group eagerly welcomed efforts to create new institu-
tional links between the self-governing portions of the Commonwealth.
But all the time the Group recognized that these innovations were
unable to satisfy the yearning that burned in the Group's collective

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 165

heart. Only as the Second World War began to enter its second, and
more hopeful, half, did the Group begin once again to raise its voice
with suggestions for some more permanent organization of the con-
stitutional side of Commonwealth relations. All of these suggestions
were offered in a timid and tentative fashion, more or less publicly
labeled as trial balloons and usually prefaced by an engaging statement
that the suggestion was the result of the personal and highly imperfect
ideas of the speaker himself. "Thinking aloud," as Smuts called it,
became epidemic among the members of the Group. These idle
thoughts could be, thus, easily repudiated if they fell on infertile or in-
hospitable ground, and even the individual whence these suggestions
emanated could hardly be held responsible for "thinking aloud." All of
these suggestions followed a similar pattern: (1) a reflection on the
great crisis which the Commonwealth survived in 1940-1942; (2) an in-
dication that this crisis required some reorganization of the Com-
monwealth in order to avoid its repetition; (3) a passage of high praise
for the existing structure of the Commonwealth and an emphatic state-
ment that the independence and autonomy of its various members is
close to the speaker's heart and that nothing he suggests must be taken
as implying any desire to infringe in the slightest degree on that in-
dependence; and (4) the suggestion itself emerges. The logical incom-
patibility of the four sections of the pattern is never mentioned and if
pointed out by some critic would undoubtedly be excused on the
grounds that the English are practical rather than logical — an excuse
behind which many English, even outside the Milner Group, frequent-
ly find refuge.

We shall give three examples of the Milner Group's suggestions for
Commonwealth reform in the second half of the recent war. They
emanated from General Smuts, Lord Halifax, and Sir Edward Grigg.
All of them were convinced that the British Commonwealth would be
drastically weaker in the postwar world and would require internal
reorganization in order to take its place as a balancing force between
the two great powers, the United States and the Soviet Union. Smuts,
in an article in the American weekly magazine Life for 28 December
1942, and in a speech before the United Kingdom branch of the Empire
Parliamentary Association in London on 25 November 1943, was delib-
erately vague but hoped to use the close link between the United King-
dom and the dependent colonies as a means of bringing the self-govern-
ing Dominions closer to the United Kingdom by combining the Domin-
ions with the colonies in regional blocs. This plan had definite advan-
tages, although it had been rejected as impractical by Lionel Curtis in
1916. If regional blocs could be formed by dividing the British Com-
monwealth into four or five geographic groupings, with a Dominion in
each region closely associated with the colonies in the same region, and

166 / The Anglo-American Establishment

if this could be done without weakening the link between the United
Kingdom and the colonies, it would serve to strengthen the link be-
tween the United Kingdom and the Dominions. This latter goal was
frankly admitted by Smuts. He also suggested that a federated Western
Europe be included in the United Kingdom regional bloc.

Sir Edward Grigg's suggestion, made in his book The British Com-
monwealth, appeared also in 1943. It was very similar to Smuts 's, even
to the use of the same verbal expressions. For example, both spoke of
the necessity for ending the "dual Empire," of which one part was
following a centralizing course and the other a decentralizing course.
This expression was derived from Lord Milner (and was attributed to
this source by Sir Edward) and referred to the difference between the
dependent and the self-governing portions of the Commonwealth. Sir
Edward advocated creation of five regional blocs, with Western
Europe, associated by means of a military alliance with the United
Kingdom, in one. Without any sacrifice of sovereignty by anyone, he
visualized the creation of a regional council ("like a miniature Imperial
Conference") and a joint parliamentary assembly in three of these
regions. The members of the council would be representatives of
legislatures and not of governments; the assembly would consist of
select members from the existing national parliaments in proper ratio;
and each region would have a permanent secretariat to carry out
agreed decisions. How this elaborate organization could be reconciled
with the continuance of unrestricted national sovereignty was not in-
dicated.

Lord Halifax's suggestion, made in a speech before the Toronto
Board of Trade on 24 January 1944, was somewhat different, although
he clearly had the same goal in view and the same mental picture of
existing world conditions. He suggested that Britain could not maintain
her position as a great power, in the sense in which the United States
and Russia were great powers, on the basis of the strength of the United
Kingdom alone. Accordingly, he advocated the creation of some
method of coordination of foreign policy and measures of defense by
which the Dominions could participate in both and a united front
could be offered to other powers.

That these trial balloons of Smuts, Grigg, and Halifax were not their
isolated personal reactions but were the results of a turmoil of thought
within the Milner Group was evident from the simultaneous sugges-
tions which appeared in The Times editorials during the first week in
December 1943 and the issue of The Round Table for the same month.
The Winnipeg Free Press, a paper which has frequently shown
knowledge of the existence of the Milner Group, in editorials of 26 and
29 January 1944, pointed out this effusion of suggestions for a
reconstruction of the Empire and said:

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 167

Added to the record of earlier statements, the Halifax speech affords con-
clusive evidence that there is a powerful movement on foot in the United
Kingdom for a Commonwealth which will speak with a single voice. And
it will be noted that Lord Halifax believes that this change in the structure
of the Commonwealth will be the first consideration of the next Imperial
Conference. . . . Running through all these speeches and articles is the
clear note of fear. The spokesmen are obsessed by the thought of power as
being the only force that counts. The world is to be governed by
Leviathans. ... It is tragic that the sincere and powerful group of public
men in England, represented by Lord Halifax and Field Marshal Smuts,
should react to the problem of maintaining peace in this way.

These suggestions were met by an uproar of protests that reached un-
necessary heights of denunciation, especially in Canada. They were re-
jected in South Africa, repulsed by Mackenzie King and others in
Canada, called "isolationist" by the CCF party, censured unanimously
by the Quebec Assembly, and repudiated by Prime Minister Churchill.
Except in New Zealand and Australia, where fear of Japan was having
a profound effect on public opinion, and in the United Kingdom,
where the Milner Group's influence was so extensive, the suggestions
received a cold reception. In South Africa only The Cape Times was
favorable, and in Canada The Vancouver Province led a small band of
supporters. As a result, the Milner Group once again rejected any
movement toward closer union. It continued to toy with Grigg's idea of
regional blocs within the Commonwealth, but here it found an almost
insoluble problem. If a regional bloc were to be created in Africa, the
natives of the African colonial areas would be exposed to the untender
mercies of the South African Boers, and it would be necessary to
repudiate the promises of native welfare which the Group had sup-
ported in the Kenya White Paper of 1923, its resistance to Boer in-
fluence in the three native protectorates in South Africa, the implica-
tions in favor of native welfare in The African Survey of 1938, and the
frequent pronouncements of The Round Table on the paramount im-
portance of protecting native rights. Such a repudiation was highly
unlikely, and indeed was specifically rejected by Grigg himself in his
book. 4

The Milner Group itself had been one of the chief, if not the chief,
forces in Britain intensifying the decentralizing influences in the self-
governing portions of the Empire. This influence was most significant
in regard to India, Palestine, Ireland, and Egypt, each of which was
separated from Great Britain by a process in which the Milner Group
was a principal agent. The first of these is so significant that it will be
discussed in a separate chapter, but a few words should be said about
the other three here.

The Milner Group had relatively little to do with the affairs of

168 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Palestine except in the early period (1915-1919), in the later period (the
Peel Report of 1937), and in the fact that the British influence on the
Permanent Mandates Commission was always exercised through a
member of the Group.

The idea of establishing a mandate system for the territories taken
from enemy powers as a result of the war undoubtedly arose from the
Milner Group's inner circle. It was first suggested by George Louis Beer
in a report submitted to the United States Government on 1 January
1918, and by Lionel Curtis in an article called "Windows of Freedom"
in The Round Table for December 1918. Beer was a member of the
Round Table Group from about 1912 and was, in fact, the first
member who was not a British subject. That Beer was a member of the
Group was revealed in the obituary published in The Round Table for
September 1920. The Group's attention was first attracted to Beer by a
series of Anglophile studies on the British Empire in the eighteenth cen-
tury which he published in the period after 1893. A Germanophobe as
well as an Anglophile, he intended by writing, if we are to believe The
Round Table, "to counteract the falsehoods about British Colonial
policy to be found in the manuals used in American primary schools."
When the Round Table Group, about 1911, began to study the causes
of the American Revolution, they wrote to Beer, and thus began a close
and sympathetic relationship. He wrote the reports on the United
States in The Round Table for many years, and his influence is clearly
evident in Curtis's The Commonwealth of Nations. He gave a hint of
the existence of the Milner Group in an article which he wrote for the
Political Science Quarterly of June 1915 on Milner. He said: "He stands
forth as the intellectual leader of the most progressive school of im-
perial thought throughout the Empire." Beer was one of the chief sup-
porters of American intervention in the war against Germany in the
period 1914-1917; he was the chief expert on colonial questions on
Colonel House's "Inquiry," which was studying plans for the peace set-
tlements; and he was the American expert on colonial questions at the
Peace Conference in Paris. The Milner Group was able to have him
named head of the Mandate Department of the League of Nations as
soon as it was established. He was one of the originators of the Royal
Institute of International Affairs in London and its American branch,
The Council on Foreign Relations. With Lord Eustace Percy, he drew
up the plan for the History oj the Peace Conference which was carried
out by Harold Temperley.

Curtis's suggestion for a mandates system was published in The
Round Table after discussions with Kerr and other members of the
inner circle. It was read by Smuts before it was printed and was used
by the latter as the basis for his memorandum published in December
1918 with the title The League of Nations: A Practical Suggestion. This

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 169

embodied a constitution for the League of Nations in twenty-one
articles. The first nine of these dealt with the question of mandates.
The mandates article of the final Covenant of the League (Article 22)
was drafted by Smuts and Kerr (according to Temperley) and was in-
troduced by Smuts to the League Commission of the Peace Conference.
The mandates themselves were granted under conditions drawn up by
Lord Milner. Since it was felt that this should be done on an interna-
tional basis, the Milner drafts were not accepted at once but were sub-
mitted to an international committee of five members meeting in Lon-
don. On this committee Milner was chairman and sole British member
and succeeded in having his drafts accepted. 6

The execution of the terms of the mandates were under the supervi-
sion of a Permanent Mandates Commission of nine members (later
ten). The British member of this commission was always of the Milner
Group, as can be seen from the following list:

W. G. A. Ormsby-Gore, February 1921-July 1923

Lord Lugard, July 1923-July 1936

Lord Hailey, September 1936-March 1939

Lord Hankey, May 1939-September 1939

Lord Hailey, September 1939-

The origins and the supervision power of the mandates system were
thus largely a result of the activities of the Milner Group. This applied
to Palestine as well as the other mandates. Palestine, however, had a
peculiar position among mandates because of the Balfour Declaration
of 1917, which states that Britain would regard with favor the
establishment of a national home for the Jews in Palestine. This
declaration, which is always known as the Balfour Declaration, should
rather be called "the Milner Declaration," since Milner was the actual
draftsman and was, apparently, its chief supporter in the War
Cabinet. This fact was not made public until 21 July 1937. At that time
Ormsby-Gore, speaking for the government in Commons, said, "The
draft as originally put up by Lord Balfour was not the final draft ap-
proved by the War Cabinet. The particular draft assented to by the
War Cabinet and afterwards by the Allied Governments and by the
United States . . . and finally embodied in the Mandate, happens to
have been drafted by Lord Milner. The actual final draft had to be
issued in the name of the Foreign Secretary, but the actual draftsman
was Lord Milner." Milner had referred to this fact in a typically in-
direct and modest fashion in the House of Lords on 27 June 1923, when
he said, "I was a party to the Balfour Declaration." In the War
Cabinet, at the time, he received strong support from General Smuts.

Once the mandate was set up, also in terms drafted by Milner, the
Milner Group took little actual part in the administration of Palestine.

170 / The Anglo-American Establishment

None of the various high commissioners was a member of the Group,
and none of the various commissions concerned with this problem
possessed a member from the Group until the Peel Commission of 1936.
Reginald Coupland was one of the six members of the Peel Commis-
sion and, according to unofficial information, was the chief author of
its report. In spite of this lack of direct contact with the subject, the
Milner Group exercised a certain amount of influence in regard to
Palestine because of its general power in the councils of the Conser-
vative Party and because Palestine was administered through the
Colonial Office, where the Milner Group's influence was considerable.

The general attitude of the Milner Group was neither pro-Arab nor
pro-Zionist, although tending, if at all, toward the latter rather than
the former. The Group were never anti-Semitic, and not a shred of
evidence in this direction has been found. In fact, they were very sym-
pathetic to the Jews and to their legitimate aspirations to overcome
their fate, but this feeling, it must be confessed, was rather general and
remote, and they did not, in their personal lives, have much real con-
tact with Jews or any real appreciation of the finer qualities of those
people. Their feeling against anti-Semitism was, on the whole, remote
and academic. On the other hand, as with most upper-class English,
their feeling for the Arabs was somewhat more personal. Many
members of the Group had been in Arab countries, found their per-
sonal relationships with the Arabs enjoyable, and were attracted to
them. However, this attraction of the Arabs never inclined the Milner
Group toward that pro-Arab romanticism that was to be found in peo-
ple like W. S. Blunt or T. E. Lawrence. The reluctance of the Milner
Group to push the Zionist cause in Palestine was based on more aca-
demic considerations, chiefly two in number: (1) the feeling that it
would not be fair to allow the bustling minority of Zionists to come into
Palestine and drive the Arabs either out or into an inferior economic
and social position; and (2) the feeling that to do this would have the
effect of alienating the Arabs from Western, and especially British,
culture, and that this would be especially likely to occur if the Jews ob-
tained control of the Mediterranean coast from Egypt to Syria.
Strangely enough, there is little evidence that the Milner Group was
activated by strategic or economic considerations at all. Thus the
widely disseminated charges that Britain failed to support Zionism in
Palestine because of anti-Semitism or strategic and economic con-
siderations is not supported by any evidence found within the Milner
Group. This may be true of other sections of British public opinion,
and certainly is true of the British Labour Party, where the existence of
anti-Semitism as an influence seems clearly established.

In Palestine, as in India and probably in Ireland, the policy of the
Milner Group seems to have been motivated by good intentions which

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 171

alienated the contending parties, encouraged extremism, and weak-
ened British influence with both. In the long run, this policy was pro-
Arab, just as in India it was pro-Moslem, and in both cases it served to
encourage an uncompromising obstructionism which could have been
avoided if Britain had merely applied the principles to which she stood
committed.

The attitude of the Milner Group toward the Arabs and Jews can be
seen from some quotations from members of the Group. At the Peace
Conference of 1919, discussing the relative merits of the Jews and
Arabs, Smuts said: "They haven't the Arabs' attractive manners. They
do not warm the heart by graceful subjection. They make demands.
They are a bitter, recalcitrant little people, and, like the Boers, impa-
tient of leadership and ruinously quarrelsome among themselves. They
see God in the shape of an Oriental potentate." A few years later, John
Dove, in a letter to Brand, asked himself why there was so much pro-
Arab feeling among the British, especially "the public school caste,"
and attributed it to the Arabs' good manners, derived from desert life,
and their love for sports, especially riding and shooting, both close to
the heart of the public-school boy. A little later, in another letter, also
written from Palestine, Dove declared that the whole Arab world
should be in one state and it must have Syria and Palestine for its front
door, not be like South Africa, with Delagoa Bay in other hands. The
Arab world, he explained, needs this western door because we are
trying to westernize the Arabs, and without it they would be driven to
the east and to India, which they hate. He concluded:

If the Arab belongs to the Mediterranean, as T. E. Lawrence insists, we
should do nothing to stop him getting back to it. Why our own nostrum
for the ills of mankind everywhere is Western Civilization, and, if it is a
sound one, what would be the good of forcing a people who want direct
contact with us to slink in and out of their country by a back door which,
like the Persian Gulf, opens only on the East? It would certainly check
development, if it did not actually warp it. I suggest then that partition
should not be permanent, but this does not mean that a stage of friendly
tutelage is necessarily a bad thing for the Arabs. On the contrary, ad-
vanced peoples can give so much to stimulate backward ones if they do it
with judgment and sympathy. Above all, it must not be the kind of help
which kills individuality. . . . Personally, I don't see the slightest harm in
Jews coming to Palestine under reasonable conditions. They are the
Arabs' cousins as much as the Phoenicians, and if Zionism brings capital
and labour which will enable industries to start, it will add to the strength
of the larger unit which some day is going to include Palestine. But they
must be content to be part of such a potential unit. They need have no fear
of absorption, for they have everything to gain from an Arab Federation.
It would mean a far larger field for their activities.

172 / The Anglo-American Establishment

The attitude of the Milner Group toward the specific problem of
Zionism was expressed in explicit terms by Lord Milner himself in a
speech in the House of Lords on 27 June 1923. After expressing his
wholehearted agreement with the policy of the British government as
revealed in its actions and in its statements, like the Balfour Declara-
tion and the White Paper of 1922 (Cmd. 1700), he added:

I am not speaking of the policy which is advocated by the extreme
Zionists, which is a totally different thing. ... I believe that we have only
to go on steadily with the policy of the Balfour Declaration as we have
ourselves interpeted it in order to see great material progress in Palestine
and a gradual subsistence of the present [Arab] agitation, the force of
which it would be foolish to deny, but which I believe to be largely due to
artificial stimulus and, to a very great extent, to be excited from without.
The symptoms of any real and general dissatisfaction among the mass of
the Arab population with the conditions under which they live, I think it
would be very difficult to discover. . . . There is plenty of room in that
country for a considerable immigrant population without injuring in any
way the resident Arab population, and, indeed, in many ways it would
tend to their extreme benefit. . . . There are about 700,000 people in
Palestine, and there is room for several millions. ... I am and always
have been a strong supporter of the pro- Arab policy which was first advo-
cated in this country in the course of the war. I believe in the indepen-
dence of the Arab countries, which they owe to us and which they can
only maintain with our help. I look forward to an Arab Federation. ... I
am convinced that the Arab will make a great mistake ... in claiming
Palestine as a part of the Arab Federation in the same sense as are the
other countries of the Near East which are mainly inhabited by Arabs.

He then went on to say that he felt that Palestine would require a
permanent mandate and under that condition could become a National
Home for the Jews, could take as many Jewish immigrants as the coun-
try could economically support, but "must never become a Jewish
state."

This was the point of view of the Milner Group, and it remained the
point of view of the British government until 1939. Like the Milner
Group's point of view on other issues, it was essentially fair, com-
promising, and well-intentioned. It broke down in Palestine because of
the obstructionism of the Arabs; the intention of the Zionists to have
political control of their National Home, if they got one; the pressure
on both Jews and Arabs from the world depression after 1929; and the
need for a refuge from Hitler for European Jews after 1933. The Milner
Group did not approve of the efforts of the Labour government in
1929-1931 to curtail Zionist rights in Palestine. They protested
vigorously against the famous White Paper of 1930 (Cmd. 3692),
which was regarded as anti-Zionist. Baldwin, Austen Chamberlain,
and Leopold Amery protested against the document in a letter to The

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 173

Times on 30 October 1930. Smuts sent a telegram of protest to the
Prime Minister, and Sir John Simon declared it a violation of the man-
date in a letter to The Times. Seven years later, the report of the Peel
Commission said that the White Paper "betrayed a marked insen-
sitiveness to Jewish feelings." As a result of this pressure, Ramsay Mac-
Donald wrote a letter to Dr. Weizmann, interpreting the document in
a more moderate fashion.

As might be expected, in view of the position of Reginald Coupland
on the Peel Commission, the report of that Commission met with a
most enthusiastic reception from the Milner Group. This report was a
scholarly study of conditions in Palestine, of a type usually found in
any document with which the Milner Group had direct contact. For
the first time in any government document, the aspirations of Jews and
Arabs in Palestine were declared to be irreconcilable and the existing
mandate unworkable. Accordingly, the report recommended the parti-
tion of Palestine into a Jewish state, an Arab state, and a neutral
enclave containing the Holy Places. This suggestion was accepted by
the British government in a White Paper (Cmd. 5513) issued through
Ormsby-Gore. He also defended it before the Permanent Mandates
Commission of the League of Nations. In the House of Lords it was
defended by Lord Lugard, but recently retired as the British member
of the Permanent Mandates Commission. It was also supported by
Lord Dufferin and Archbishop Lang. In the House of Commons the
motion to approve the government's policy as outlined in the White
Paper Cmd. 5513 was introduced by Ormsby-Gore. The first speech in
support of the motion, which was passed without a division, was from
Leopold Amery.

Amery's speech in support of this motion is extremely interesting and
is actually an evolution, under the pressure of hard facts, from the
point of view described by Lord Milner in 1923. Amery said: "However
much we may regret it, we have lost the situation in Palestine, as we
lost it in Ireland, through a lack of wholehearted faith in ourselves and
through the constitutional inability of the individual Briton, and in-
deed of the country as a whole, not to see the other fellow's point of
view and to be influenced by it, even to the detriment of any consistent
policy." According to Amery, the idea of partition occurred to the Peel
Commission only after it had left Palestine and the report was already
written. Thus the commission was unable to hear any direct evidence
on this question or make any examination of how partition should be
carried out in detail. He said:

Of the 396 pages of the Report almost the whole of the first 368 pages, in-
cluding the whole of chapters 7 to 19, represent an earlier Report of an
entirely different character. That earlier Report envisaged the continua-
tion of the Mandate in its present form. . . . Throughout all these chapters

174 / The Anglo-American Establishment

to which I have referred, the whole text of the chapters deals with the
assumption that the Mandate is continued, but here and there, at the end
of some chapter, there is tacked on in a quite obviously added last para-
graph, something to this effect: "All the rest of the chapter before is some-
thing that might have been considered if, as a matter of fact, we were not
going to pursue an entirely different policy." These last paragraphs were
obviously added by the Secretary, or whoever helped draft the Report,
after the main great conclusion was reached at a very late stage.

Since the Milner Group supported partition in Palestine, as they had
earlier in Ireland and as they did later in India, it is not too much to
believe that Coupland added the additional paragraphs after the com-
mission had returned to England and he had had an opportunity to
discuss the matter with other members of the inner circle. In fact,
Amery's remarks were probably based on knowledge rather than inter-
nal textual evidence and were aimed to get the motion accepted, with
the understanding that it approved no more than the principle of parti-
tion, with the details to be examined by another commission later.
This, in fact, is what was done.

Amery's speech is also interesting for its friendly reference to the
Jews. He said that in the past the Arabs had obtained 100 percent of
what they were promised, while the Jews had received "a raw deal," in
spite of the fact that the Jews had a much greater need of the country
and would make the best use of the land.

To carry out the policy of partition, the government appointed a
new royal commission of four members in March 1938. Known as the
Woodhead Commission, this body had no members of either the
Milner Group or the Cecil Bloc on it, and its report (Cmd. 5854) re-
jected partition as impractical on the grounds that any acceptable
method of partition into two states would give a Jewish state with an
annual financial surplus and an Arab state with an annual financial
deficit. This conclusion was accepted by the government in another
White Paper (Cmd. 5893 of 1938). As an alternative, the government
called a Round Table Conference of Jews and Arabs from Palestine
along with representatives of the Arab states outside of Palestine.
During all this, the Arabs had been growing increasingly violent; they
refused to accept the Peel Report; they boycotted the Woodhead Com-
mission; and they finally broke into open civil war. In such conditions,
nothing was accomplished at the Round Table meetings at London in
February-March 1939. The Arab delegation included leaders who had
to be released from prison in order to come and who refused to sit in the
same conference with the Jews. Compromise proposals presented by
the government were rejected by both sides.

After the conference broke up, the government issued a new state-
ment of policy (Cmd. 6019 of May 1939). It was a drastic reversal of

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 175

previous statements and was obviously a turn in favor of the Arabs. It
fixed Jewish immigration into Palestine at 75,000 for the whole of the
next five years (including illegal immigration) and gave the Arabs a
veto on any Jewish immigration after the five-year period was finished.
As a matter of principle, it shifted the basis for Jewish immigration
from the older criterion of the economic absorptive capacity of
Palestine to the political absorptive capacity. This was really an invita-
tion to the Arabs to intensify their agitation and constituted a vital
blow at the Jews, since it was generally conceded that Jewish immigra-
tion increased the economic absorptive capacity for both Jews and
Arabs.

The Milner Group were divided on this concrete policy. In general,
they continued to believe that the proper solution to the Zionist prob-
lem could be found in a partitioned Palestine within a federation of
Arab states. The Round Table offered this as its program in March
1939 and repeated it in June of the same year. But on the issue of an im-
mediate and concrete policy, the Group was split. It is highly unlikely
that this split originated with the issue of Zionism. It was, rather, a
reflection of the more fundamental split within the Group, between
those, like Amery and Salter, who abandoned the appeasement policy
in March 1939 and those, like the Astors and Lothian, who continued
to pursue it in a modified form.

The change in the policy of the government resulted in a full debate
in the House of Commons. This debate, and the resulting division,
revealed the split within the Milner Group. The policy of the White
Paper was denounced by Amery as a betrayal of the Jews and of the
mandate, as the final step in a scaling down of Jewish hopes that began
in 1922, as a yielding of principle to Arab terrorists, as invalid without
the approval of the League of Nations, and as unworkable because the
Jews would and could resist it. The speeches for the government from
Malcolm MacDonald and R. A. Butler were weak and vague. In the
division, the government won approval of the White Paper by 268 to
179, with Major Astor, Nancy Astor, Hoare, Simon, Malcolm Mac-
Donald, and Sir Donald Somervell in the majority and Amery, Noel-
Baker, and Arthur Salter in the minority. On the same day, a similar
motion in the House of Lords was approved without a division.

The government at once began to put the White Paper policy into
effect, without waiting for the approval of the Permanent Mandates
Commission. In July 1939 rumors began to circulate that this body had
disapproved of the policy, and questions were asked in the House of
Commons, but MacDonald evaded the issue, refused to give informa-
tion which he possessed, and announced that the government would
take the issue to the Council of the League. As the Council meeting was
canceled by the outbreak of war, this could not be done, but within a

176 / The Anglo-American Establishment

week of the announcement the minutes of the Permanent Mandates
Commission were released. They showed that the commission had, by
unanimous vote, decided that the policy of the White Paper was con-
trary to the accepted interpretations of the mandate, and, by a vote of
4-3, that the White Paper was inconsistent with the mandate under any
possible interpretation. In this last vote Hankey, at his first session of
the commission, voted in the minority.

As a result of the release of this information, a considerable section of
the House was disturbed by the government's high-handed actions and
by the Colonial Secretary's evasive answers in July 1939. In March
1940, Noel-Baker introduced a motion of censure on this issue. The mo-
tion did not go to a division, but Amery once again objected to the new
policy and to inviting representatives of the Arab states to the abortive
Round Table Conference of 1939. He called the presence of agents of
the Mufti at the Round Table "surrender."

By this time the Milner Group was badly shattered on other issues
than Palestine. Within two months of this debate, it was reunited on
the issue of all-out war against Germany, and Amery had resumed a
seat in the Cabinet as Secretary of State for India. The Palestine issue
declined in importance and did not revive to any extent until the
Labour government of 1945 had taken office. From that time on the
members of the Milner Group were united again on the issue, objecting
to the Labour government's anti-Jewish policy and generally following
the line Amery had laid down in 1939. In fact, it was Amery who did
much of the talking in 1946-1949, but this is not strictly part of our
story.

In Irish affairs, the Milner Group played a much more decisive role
than in Palestine affairs, although only for the brief period from 1917
to 1925. Previous to 1917 and going back to 1887, Irish affairs had been
one of the most immediate concerns of the Cecil Bloc. A nephew of
Lord Salisbury was Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1887-1891, another
nephew held the post in 1895-1900, and the private secretary and pro-
tege of the former held the post in 1900-1905. The Cecil Bloc had
always been opposed to Home Rule for Ireland, and when, in
1912-1914, the Liberal government took steps to grant Home Rule, Sir
Edward Carson took the lead in opposing these steps. Carson was a
creation of the Cecil Bloc, a fact admitted by Balfour in 1929, when he
told his niece, "I made Carson." Balfour found Carson a simple Dublin
barrister in 1887, when he went to Ireland as Chief Secretary. He made
Carson one of his chief prosecuting attorneys in 1887, an M.P. for
Dublin University in 1892, and Solicitor General in his own govern-
ment in 1900-1906. When the Home Rule Bill of 1914 was about to
pass, Carson organized a private army, known as the Ulster
Volunteers, armed them with guns smuggled in from Germany, and

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 177

formed a plot to seize control of Belfast at a given signal from him. This
signal, in the form of a code telegram, was written in 1914 and on its
way to be dispatched by Carson when he received word from Asquith
that war with Germany was inevitable. Accordingly, the revolt was
canceled and the date on which the Home Rule Bill was to go into
effect was postponed by special act of Parliament until six months after
peace should be signed.

The information about the telegram of 1914 was revealed to Lionel
Curtis by Carson in a personal conversation after war began. Curtis's
attitude was quite different, and he thoroughly disapproved of
Carson's plot. This difference is an indication of the difference in point
of view in regard to Ireland between the Milner Group and the Cecil
Bloc. The latter was willing to oppose Home Rule even to the point
where it would condone illegal actions; the former, on the contrary,
was in favor of Home Rule because it believed that Ireland would aid
Britain's enemies in every crisis and leave the Commonwealth at the
first opportunity unless it were given freedom to govern itself.

The Milner Group's attitude toward the Irish question was expressed
by The Round Table in a retrospective article in the September 1935
issue in the following words:

The root principle of The Round Table remained freedom — "the govern-
ment of men by themselves" — and it demanded that within the Empire
this principle should be persistently pursued and expressed in institutions.
For that reason it denounced the post-war attempt to repress the Irish
demand for national self-government by ruthless violence after a century
of union had failed to win Irish consent, as a policy in conflict with
British institutions and inconsistent with the principle of the British
Commonwealth; and it played its part in achieving the Irish Treaty and
the Dominion settlement.

The part which the Group played in the Irish settlement was con-
siderably more than this brief passage might indicate, but it could not
take effect until the group in Britain advocating repression and the
group in Ireland advocating separation from the crown had brought
each other to some realization of the advantages of compromise.

These advantages were pointed out by the Group, especially by
Lionel Curtis, who began a two-year term as editor of The Round
Table immediately after his great triumph in the Government of India
Act of 1919. In the March 1920 issue, for example, he discussed and ap-
proved a project, first announced by Lloyd George in December 1919,
to separate northern and southern Ireland and give self-government to
both as autonomous parts of Great Britain. This was really nothing but
an application of the principle of devolution, whose attractiveness to
the Milner Group has already been mentioned.

178 / The Anglo-American Establishment

The Irish Settlement in the period 1920-1923 is very largely a Milner
Group achievement. For most of this period Amery's brother-in-law,
Hamar Greenwood (Viscount Greenwood since 1937), was Chief
Secretary for Ireland. He was, indeed, the last person to hold this office
before it was abolished at the end of 1922. Curtis was adviser on Irish
affairs to the Colonial Office in 1921-1924, and Smuts and Feetham in-
tervened in the affair at certain points.

A settlement of the Irish problem along lines similar to those ad-
vocated by The Round Table was enacted in the Government of
Ireland Act of December 1920. Drafted by H. A. L. Fisher and piloted
through Commons by him, it passed the critical second reading by a
vote of 348-94. In the majority were Amery, Nancy Astor, Austen
Chamberlain, H. A. L. Fisher, Hamar Greenwood, Samuel Hoare, G.
R. Lane-Fox (brother-in-law of Lord Halifax), and E. F. L. Wood
(Lord Halifax). In the minority were Lord Robert Cecil and Lord
Wolmer (son of Lord Selborne) . In the House of Lords the bill passed
by 164-75. In the majority were Lords Curzon, Lytton, Onslow
(brother-in-law of Lord Halifax), Goschen, Hampden (brother of
Robert Brand), Hardinge, Milner, Desborough, Ernie, Meston, Mon-
son, Phillimore, Riddell, and Wemyss. In the minority were Lords
Linlithgow, Beauchamp (father-in-law of Samuel Hoare), Midleton,
Bryce, Ampthill (brother-in-law of Samuel Hoare), and Leconfield
(brother of Hugh Wyndham) .

The act of 1920 never went into effect because the extremists on both
sides were not yet satiated with blood. By June 1921 they were. The
first movement in this direction, according to W. K. Hancock, "may be
said to open as early as October 1920 when The Times published sug-
gestions for a truce and negotiations between plenipotentiaries of both
sides." The same authority lists ten voices as being raised in protest at
British methods of repression. Three of these were of the Milner Group
(The Times, The Round Table, and Sir John Simon). He quotes The
Round Table as saying: "If the British Commonwealth can only be
preserved by such means, it would become a negation of the principle
for which it has stood." 6 Similar arguments were brought to bear on
the Irish leaders by Jan Smuts.

Smuts left South Africa for England at the end of May 1921, to at-
tend the Imperial Conference of that year, which was to open on a
Monday. He arrived in England the preceding Saturday and went to
Oxford to stay with friends of the Milner Group. In the evening he at-
tended a Rhodes dinner, which means he saw more of the Group. The
following day, he was called by the King to Windsor Castle and went
immediately. The King told Smuts that he was going to make a speech
at the opening of the new Ulster Parliament. He asked Smuts to write
down suggestions for this speech. Smuts stayed the night at Windsor

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 179

Castle, drafted a speech, and gave it to the King's private secretary.
The sequel can best be told in Smuts's own words as recorded in the
second volume of S. G. Millin's biography: "The next day Lloyd
George invited me to attend a committee meeting of the Cabinet, to
give my opinion of the King's speech. And what should this King's
speech turn out to be but a typewritten copy of the draft I had myself
written the night before. I found them working on it. Nothing was said
about my being the author. They innocently consulted me and I in-
nocently answered them. But imagine the interesting position. Well,
they toned the thing down a bit, they made a few minor alterations,
but in substance the speech the King delivered next week in Belfast was
the one I prepared." 7 Needless to say, this speech was conciliatory.

Shortly afterward, Tom Casement, brother of Sir Roger Casement,
who had been executed by the British in 1916, opened negotiations be-
tween Smuts and the Irish leaders in Dublin. Tom Casement was an
old friend of Smuts, for he had been British Consul at Delagoa Bay in
1914 and served with Smuts in East Africa in 1916-1917. As a result,
Smuts went to Ireland in June 1921 under an alias and was taken to the
hiding place of the rebels. He tried to persuade them that they would
be much better off with Dominion status within the British Com-
monwealth than as a republic, offering as an example the insecure posi-
tion of the Transvaal before 1895 in contrast with its happy condition
after 1909. He said in conclusion, "Make no mistake about it, you have
more privilege, more power, more peace, more security in such a
sisterhood of equal nations than in a small, nervous republic having all
the time to rely on goodwill, and perhaps the assistance, of foreigners.
What sort of independence do you call that? By comparison with real
independence it is a shadow. You sell the fact for the name." Smuts felt
that his argument was having an effect on Arthur Griffith and some
others, but de Valera remained suspicious, and Erskine Childers was
"positively hostile." Nevertheless, the Irish decided to open negotia-
tions with London, and Smuts promised to arrange an armistice. The
armistice went into effect on 11 July 1921, and three days later the con-
ference began.

The Irish Conference of 1921 was held in two sessions: a week in July
and a series of meetings from 11 October to 6 December 1921. The
secretary to the conference was Lionel Curtis, who resigned his editor-
ship of The Round Table for the purpose and remained as chief adviser
on Irish affairs to the Colonial Office for the next three years. As a
result of the conference, the Irish moderates negotiated the Articles of
Agreement of 6 December 1921. De Valera had refused to form part of
the Irish delegation at the second session of the conference, and refused
to accept Dominion status, although Smuts begged him to do so in a
letter published in The Times on 15 August.

180 / The Anglo-American Establishment

As a result of the Articles of Agreement of December 1921 and the
Irish Free State Act of March 1922, Southern Ireland became an in-
dependent Dominion within the British Commonwealth. Its boundary
with Northern Ireland was to be settled by a Boundary Commission of
three members representing the three interested parties. On this com-
mission, Richard Feetham of the Milner Group was the British member
and also chairman.

The subsequent revolt of de Valera and the Irish Republicans against
the Free State government, and the ultimate victory of their ideas, is
not part of our story. It was a development which the Milner Group
were powerless to prevent. They continued to believe that the Irish,
like others, could be bound to Britain by invisible ties if all visible ones
were destroyed. This extraordinary belief, admirable as it was, had its
basis in a profoundly Christian outlook and, like appeasement of
Hitler, self-government for India, or the Statute of Westminister, had
its ultimate roots in the Sermon on the Mount. Unfortunately, such
Christian tactics were acutely dangerous in a non-Christian world, and
in this respect the Irish were only moderately different from Hitler.

The Milner Group's reward for their concessions to Ireland was not
to be obtained in this world. This became clear during the Second
World War, when the inability of the British to use Irish naval bases
against German submarines had fatal consequences for many gallant
British seamen. These bases had been retained for Britain as a result of
the agreement of 1922 but were surrendered to the Irish on 25 April
1938, just when Hitler's threat to Britain was becoming acute. The
Round Table of June 1938 welcomed this surrender, saying: "The
defence of the Irish coast, as John Redmond vainly urged in 1914,
should be primarily a matter for Irishmen."

As the official links between Eire and Britain were slowly severed,
the Group made every effort to continue unofficial relationships such
as those through the Irish Institute of International Affairs and the
unofficial British Commonwealth relations conference, which had
Irish members in 1938.

The relationships of Britain with Egypt were also affected by the ac-
tivity of the Milner Group. The details need not detain us long. It is
sufficient to state that the Egyptian Declaration of 1922 was the result
of the personal negotiations of Lord Milner in Egypt in his capacity as
Colonial Secretary. In this post his Permanent Under Secretary was Sir
George Fiddes of the Kindergarten, his Parliamentary Under Secretary
was Amery, and his chief adviser in Egypt was M. S. O. Walrond, also
of the Kindergarten.

Without going into the very extensive influence which members of
the Milner Group have had on other parts of the Commonwealth
(especially tropical Africa), it must be clear that, however unsatis-

The Creation of the Commonwealth / 181

factory Commonwealth relations may be to the Group now, they
nevertheless were among the chief creators of the existing system. This
will appear even more clearly when we examine their influence in the
history of India.

10

The Royal Institute of
International Affairs

The Royal Institute of International Affairs (RIIA) is nothing but
the Milner Group "writ large." It was founded by the Group, has been
consistently controlled by the Group, and to this day is the Milner
Group in its widest aspect. It is the legitimate child of the Round Table
organization, just as the latter was the legitimate child of the "Closer
Union" movement organized in South Africa in 1907. All three of these
organizations were formed by the same small group of persons, all
three received their initial financial backing from Sir Abe Bailey, and
all three used the same methods for working out and propagating their
ideas (the so-called Round Table method of discussion groups plus a
journal). This similarity is not an accident. The new organization was
intended to be a wider aspect of the Milner Group, the plan being to
influence the leaders of thought through The Round Table and to
influence a wider group through the RIIA.

The real founder of the Institute was Lionel Curtis, although this
fact was concealed for many years and he was presented to the public
as merely one among a number of founders. In more recent years,
however, the fact that Curtis was the real founder of the Institute has
been publicly stated by members of the Institute and by the Institute
itself on many occasions, and never denied. One example will suffice.
In the Annual Report of the Institute for 1942-1943 we read the follow-
ing sentence: "When the Institute was founded through the inspiration
of Mr. Lionel Curtis during the Peace Conference of Paris in 1919,
those associated with him in laying the foundations were a group of
comparatively young men and women."

The Institute was organized at a joint conference of British and
American experts at the Hotel Majestic on 30 May 1919. At the sugges-
tion of Lord Robert Cecil, the chair was given to General Tasker Bliss
of the American delegation. We have already indicated that the experts
of the British delegation at the Peace Conference were almost
exclusively from the Milner Group and Cecil Bloc. The American

182

The Royal Institute of International Affairs / 183

group of experts, "the Inquiry," was manned almost as completely by
persons from institutions (including universities) dominated by J. P.
Morgan and Company. This was not an accident. Moreover, the Mil-
ner Group has always had very close relationships with the associ-
ates of J. P. Morgan and with the various branches of the Carnegie
Trust. These relationships, which are merely examples of the closely
knit ramifications of international financial capitalism, were probably
based on the financial holdings controlled by the Milner Group
through the Rhodes Trust. The term "international financier" can be
applied with full justice to several members of the Milner Group inner
circle, such as Brand, Hichens, and above all, Milner himself.

At the meeting at the Hotel Majestic, the British group included
Lionel Curtis, Philip Kerr, Lord Robert Cecil, Lord Eustace Percy, Sir
Eyre Crowe, Sir Cecil Hurst, J. W. Headlam-Morley, Geoffrey
Dawson, Harold Temperley, and G. M. Gathorne-Hardy. It was
decided to found a permanent organization for the study of interna-
tional affairs and to begin by writing a history of the Peace
Conference. A committee was set up to supervise the writing of this
work. It had Lord Meston as chairman, Lionel Curtis as secretary, and
was financed by a gift of £2000 from Thomas W. Lamont of J. P.
Morgan and Company. This group picked Harold Temperley as editor
of the work. It appeared in six large volumes in the years 1920-1924,
under the auspices of the RIIA.

The British organization was set up by a committee of which Lord
Robert Cecil was chairman, Lionel Curtis was honorary secretary and
the following were members: Lord Eustace Percy, J. A. C. (later Sir
John) Tilley, Philip Noel-Baker, Clement Jones, Harold Temperley,
A. L. Smith (classmate of Milner and Master of Balliol), George W.
Prothero, and Geoffrey Dawson. This group drew up a constitution
and made a list of prospective members. Lionel Curtis and Gathorne-
Hardy drew up the by-laws.

The above description is based on the official history of the RIIA
published by the Institute itself in 1937 and written by Stephen King-
Hall. It does not agree in its details (committees and names) with infor-
mation from other sources, equally authoritative, such as the journal of
the Institute or the preface to Temperley's History of the Peace
Conference. The latter, for example, says that the members were
chosen by a committee consisting of Lord Robert Cecil, Sir Valentine
Chirol, and Sir Cecil Hurst. As a matter of fact, all of these differing
accounts are correct, for the Institute was formed in such an informal
fashion, as among friends, that membership on committees and lines of
authority between committees were not very important. As an exam-
ple, Mr. King-Hall says that he was invited to join the Institute in 1919
by Philip Kerr (Lord Lothian), although this name is not to be found

184 / The Anglo-American Establishment

on any membership committee. At any rate, one thing is clear: The
Institute was formed by the Cecil Bloc and the Milner Group, acting
together, and the real decisions were being made by members of the
latter.

As organized, the Institute consisted of a council with a chairman
and two honorary secretaries, and a small group of paid employees.
Among these latter, A. J. Toynbee, nephew of Milner 's old friend at
Balliol, was the most important. There were about 300 members in
1920, 714 in 1922, 1707 in 1929, and 2414 in 1936. There have been
three chairmen of the council: Lord Meston in 1920-1926, Major-
General Sir Neill Malcolm in 1926-1935, and Lord Astor from 1935 to
the present. All of these are members of the Milner Group, although
General Malcolm is not yet familiar to us.

General Malcolm, from Eton and Sandhurst, married the sister of
Dougal Malcolm of Milner 's Kindergarten in 1907, when he was a cap-
tain in the British Army. By 1916 he was a lieutenant colonel and two
years later a major general. He was with the British Military Mission in
Berlin in 1919-1921 and General Officer Commanding in Malaya in
1921-1924, retiring in 1924. He was High Commissioner for German
Refugees (a project in which the Milner Group was deeply involved) in
1936-1938 and has been associated with a number of industrial and
commercial firms, including the British North Borneo Company, of
which he is president and Dougal Malcolm is vice-president. It must
not be assumed that General Malcolm won advancement in the world
because of his connections with the Milner Group, for his older
brother, Sir Ian Malcolm was an important member of the Cecil Bloc
long before Sir Neill joined the Milner Group. Sir Ian, who went to
Eton and New College, was assistant private secretary to Lord
Salisbury in 1895-1900, was parliamentary private secretary to the
Chief Secretary for Ireland (George Wyndham) in 1901-1903, and was
private secretary to Balfour in the United States in 1917 and at the
Peace Conference in 1919. He wrote the sketch of Walter Long of the
Cecil Bloc (Lord Long of Wraxall) in the Dictionary oj National
Biography.

From the beginning, the two honorary secretaries of the Institute
were Lionel Curtis and G. M. Gathorne-Hardy. These two, especially
the latter, did much of the active work of running the organization. In
1926 the Report of the Council of the RIIA said: "It is not too much to
say that the very existence of the Institute is due to those who have
served as Honorary Officers." The burden of work was so great on
Curtis and Gathorne-Hardy by 1926 that Sir Otto Beit, of the Rhodes
Trust, Milner Group, and British South Africa Company, gave £1000
for 1926 and 1927 for secretarial assistance. F. B. Bourdillon assumed
the task of providing this assistance in March 1926. He had been

The Royal Institute of International Affairs / 185

secretary to Feetham on the Irish Boundary Commission in 1924-1925
and a member of the British delegation to the Peace Conference in
1919. He has been in the Research Department of the Foreign Office
since 1943.

The active governing body of the Institute is the council, originally
called the executive committee. Under the more recent name, it
generally had twenty-five to thirty members, of whom slightly less
than half were usually of the Milner Group. In 1923, five members
were elected, including Lord Meston, Headlam-Morley, and Mrs.
Alfred Lyttelton. The following year, seven were elected, including
Wilson Harris, Philip Kerr, and Sir Neill Malcolm. And so it went. In
1936, at least eleven out of twenty-six members of the council were of
the Milner Group. These included Lord Astor (chairman), L. Curtis,
G. M. Gathorne-Hardy, Lord Hailey, H. D. Henderson, Stephen
King-Hall, Mrs. Alfred Lyttelton, Sir Neill Malcolm, Lord Meston, Sir
Arthur Salter, J. W. Wheeler-Bennett, E. L. Woodward, and Sir
Alfred Zimmern. Among the others were A. V. Alexander, Sir John
Power, Sir Norman Angell, Clement Jones, Lord Lytton, Harold
Nicolson, Lord Snell, and C. K. Webster. Others who were on the
council at various times were E. H. Carr, Harold Butler, G. N. Clark,
Geoffrey Crowther, H. V. Hodson, Hugh Wyndham, G. W. A. Orms-
ley-Gore, Walter Layton, Austen Chamberlain, Malcolm MacDonald
(elected 1933), and many other members of the Group.

The chief activities of the RIIA were the holding of discussion
meetings, the organization of study groups, the sponsoring of research,
and the publication of information and materials based on these. At the
first meeting, Sir Maurice Hankey read a paper on "Diplomacy by
Conference," showing how the League of Nations grew out of the
Imperial Conferences. This was published in The Round Table. No
complete record exists of the meetings before the fall of 1921, but,
beginning then, the principal speech at each meeting and resumes of
the comments from the floor were published in the Journal. At the first
of these recorded meetings, D. G. Hogarth spoke on "The Arab States,"
with Lord Chelmsford in the chair. Stanley Reed, Chirol, and Meston
spoke from the floor. Two weeks later, H. A. L. Fisher spoke on "The
Second Assembly of the League of Nations," with Lord Robert Cecil in
the chair. Temperley and Wilson Harris also spoke. In November,
Philip Kerr was the chief figure for two evenings on "Pacific Problems
as They Would Be submitted to the Washington Conference." At the
end of the same month, A. J. Toynbee spoke on "The Greco-Turkish
Question," with Sir Arthur Evans in the chair, and early in December
his father-in-law, Gilbert Murray, spoke on "Self-Determination,"
with Lord Sumner in the chair. In January 1922, Chaim Weizmann
spoke on "Zionism"; in February, Chirol spoke on "Egypt"; in April,

186 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Walter T. Lay ton spoke on "The Financial Achievement of the League
of Nations," with Lord Robert Cecil in the chair. In June, Wilson
Harris spoke on "The Genoa Conference," with Robert H. Brand in the
chair. In October, Ormsby-Gore spoke on "Mandates," with Lord
Lugard in the chair. Two weeks later, Sir Arthur Steel-Mai tland spoke
on "The League of Nations," with H. A. L. Fisher in the chair. In
March 1923, Harold Butler spoke on the "International Labour
Office," with G. N. Barnes in the chair. Two weeks later, Philip Kerr
spoke on "The Political Situation in the United States," with Arthur
Balfour in the chair. In October 1923, Edward F. L. Wood (Lord
Halifax) spoke on "The League of Nations," with H. A. L. Fisher in the
chair. In November 1924, E. R. Peacock (Parkin's protege) spoke on
"Mexico," with Lord Eustace Percy in the chair. In October 1925,
Leopold Amery spoke on "The League of Nations," with Robert Cecil
as chairman, while in May 1926, H. A. L. Fisher spoke on the same
subject, with Neill Malcolm as chairman. In November 1925, Paul
Mantoux spoke on "The Procedure of the League," with Brand as
chairman. In June 1923, Edward Grigg spoke on "Egypt," with D. G.
Hogarth in the chair. In the season of 1933-1934 the speakers included
Ormsby-Gore, Oliver Lyttelton, Edward Grigg, Donald Somervell,
Toynbee, Zimmern, R. W. Seton-Watson, and Lord Lothian. In the
season of 1938-1939 the list contains the names of Wilson Harris, C. A.
Macartney, Toynbee, Lord Hailey, A. G. B. Fisher, Harold Butler,
Curtis, Lord Lothian, Zimmern, Lionel Hichens, and Lord Halifax.
These rather scattered observations will show how the meetings were
peppered by members of the Milner Group. This does not mean that
the Group monopolized the meetings, or even spoke at a majority of
them. The meetings generally took place once a week from October to
June of each year, and probably members of the Group spoke or pre-
sided at no more than a quarter of them. This, however, represents far
more than their due proportion, for when the Institute had 2500,
members the Milner Group amounted to no more than 100.

The proceedings of the meetings were generally printed in
abbreviated form in the Journal of the Institute. Until January 1927,
this periodical was available only to members, but since that date it has
been open to public subscription. The first issue was as anonymous as
the first issue of The Round Table: no list of editors, no address, and no
signature to the opening editorial introducing the new journal. The
articles, however, had the names of the speakers indicated. When it
went on public sale in January 1927, the name of the Institute was
added to the cover. In time it took the name International Affairs. The
first editor, we learn from a later issue, was Gathorne-Hardy. In
January 1932 an editorial board was placed in charge of the publica-
tion. It consisted of Meston, Gathorne-Hardy, and Zimmern. This

The Royal Institute of International Affairs / 187

same board remained in control until war forced suspension of publica-
tion at the end of 1939. When publication was resumed in 1944 in
Canada, the editorial board consisted of Hugh Wyndham, Geoffrey
Crowther, and H. A. R. Gibb. Wyndham is still chairman of the
board, but since the war the membership of the board has changed
somewhat. In 1948 it had six members, of whom three are employees of
the Institute, one is the son-in-law of an employee, the fifth is Professor
of Arabic at Oxford, and the last is the chairman, Hugh Wyndham. In
1949 Adam Marris was added.

In addition to the History of the Peace Conference and the journal
International Affairs, the Institute publishes the annual Survey of
International Affairs. This is written either by members of the Group
or by employees of the Institute. The chief writers have been Toynbee;
his second wife, V. M. Boulter; Robert J. Stopford, who appears to be
one of R. H. Brand's men and who wrote the reparations section each
year; 1 H. V. Hodson, who did the economic sections from 1930-1938;
and A. G. B. Fisher, who has done the economic sections since Hodson.
Until 1928 the Survey had an appendix of documents, but since that
year these have been published in a separate volume, usually edited by
J. W. Wheeler-Bennett. Mr. Wheeler-Bennett became a member of the
Milner Group and the Institute by a process of amalgamation. In 1924
he had founded a document service, which he called Information Ser-
vice on International Affairs, and in the years following 1924 he
published a number of valuable digests of documents and other infor-
mation on disarmament, security, the World Court, reparations, etc.,
as well as a periodical called the Bulletin of International News. In
1927 he became Honorary Information Secretary of the RIIA, and in
1930 the Institute bought out all his information services for £3500 and
made them into the Information Department of the Institute, still in
charge of Mr. Wheeler-Bennett. Since the annual Documents on Inter-
national Affairs resumed publication in 1944, it has been in charge of
Monica Curtis (who may be related to Lionel Curtis), while Mr.
Wheeler-Bennett has been busy elsewhere. In 1938-1939 he was
Visiting Professor of International Relations at the University of Vir-
ginia: in 1939-1944 he was in the United States in various propaganda
positions with the British Library of Information and for two years as
Head of the British Political Warfare Mission in New York. Since 1946,
he has been engaged in editing, from the British side, an edition of
about twenty volumes of the captured documents of the German For-
eign Ministry. He has also lectured on international affairs at New Col-
lege, a connection obviously made through the Milner Group.

The Survey of International Affairs has been financed since 1925 by
an endowment of £20,000 given by Sir Daniel Stevenson for this pur-
pose and also to provide a Research Chair of International History at

188 / The Anglo-American Establishment

the University of London. Arnold J. Toynbee has held both the
professorship and the editorship since their establishment. He has also
been remunerated by other grants from the Institute. When the first
major volume of the Survey, covering the years 1920-1923, was
published, a round-table discussion was held at Chatham House, 17
November 1925, to criticize it. Headlam-Morley was chairman, and
the chief speakers were Curtis, Wyndham, Gathorne-Hardy, Gilbert
Murray, and Toynbee himself.

Since the Survey did not cover British Commonwealth affairs, except
in a general fashion, a project was established for a parallel Survey of
British Commonwealth Relations. This was financed by a grant of
money from the Carnegie Corporation of New York. The task was
entrusted to W. K. Hancock, a member of All Souls since 1924 and
Chichele Professor of Economic History residing at All Souls since
1944. He produced three substantial volumes of the Survey in
1940-1942, with a supplementary legal chapter in volume I by R. T. E.
Latham of All Souls and the Milner Group.

The establishment of the Stevenson Chair of International History at
London, controlled by the RIIA, gave the Group the idea of
establishing similar endowed chairs in other subjects and in other
places. In 1936, Sir Henry Price gave £20,000 to endow for seven years
a Chair of International Economics at Chatham House. This was filled
by Allan G. B. Fisher of Australia.

In 1947 another chair was established at Chatham House: the Abe
Bailey Professorship of Commonwealth Relations. This was filled by
Nicholas Mansergh, who had previously written a few articles on Irish
affairs and has since published a small volume on Commonwealth
affairs.

By the terms of the foundation, the Institute had a voice in the elec-
tion of professors to the Wilson Chair of International Politics at the
University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. As a result, this chair has
been occupied by close associates of the Group from its foundation.
The following list of incumbents is significant:

A. E. Zimmern, 1919-1921

C. K. Webster, 1922-1932

J. D. Greene, 1932-1934

J. F. Vranek, (Acting), 1934-1936

E. H. Carr, 1936 to now

Three of these names are familiar. Of the others, Jiri Vranek was
secretary to the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation (to
be discussed in a moment). Jerome Greene was an international banker
close to the Milner Group. Originally Mr. Greene had been a close
associate of J. D. Rockefeller, but in 1917 he shifted to the interna-

The Royal Institute of International Affairs / 189

tional banking firm Lee, Higginson, and Company of Boston. In 1918
he was American secretary to the Allied Maritime Transport Council in
London (of which Arthur Salter was general secretary) . He became a
resident of Toynbee Hall and established a relationship with the Milner
Group. In 1919 he was secretary to the Reparations Commission of the
Peace Conference (a post in which his successor was Arthur Salter in
1920-1922). He was chairman of the Pacific Council of the Institute of
Pacific Relations in 1929-1932. This last point will be discussed in a
moment. Mr. Greene was a trustee and secretary of the Rockefeller
Foundation in 1913-1917, and was a trustee of the Rockefeller Institute
and of the Rockefeller General Education Board in 1912-1939.

The study groups of the RIIA are direct descendants of the round-
table meetings of the Round Table Group. They have been defined by
Stephen King-Hall as "unofficial Royal Commissions charged by the
Council of Chatham House with the investigation of specific
problems." These study groups are generally made up of persons who
are not members of the Milner Group, and their reports are frequently
published by the Institute. In 1932 the Rockefeller Foundation gave
the Institute a grant of £8000 a year for five years to advance the study-
group method of research. This was extended for five years more in
1937.

In 1923, Lionel Curtis got a Canadian, Colonel R. W. Leonard, so
interested in the work of the Institute that he bought Lord Kinnaird's
house at 10 St. James Square as a home for the Institute. Since William
Pitt had once lived in the building, it was named "Chatham House," a
designation which is now generally applied to the Institute itself. The
only condition of the grant was that the Institute should raise an
endowment to yield at least £10,000 a year for upkeep. Since the
building had no adequate assembly hall, Sir John Power, the honorary
treasurer, gave £10,000 to build one on the rear. The building itself
was renovated and furnished under the care of Mrs. Alfred Lyttelton,
who, like her late husband but unlike her son, Oliver, was a member of
the Milner Group.

The assumption of the title to Chatham House brought up a major
crisis within the Institute when a group led by Professor A. F. Pollard
(Fellow of All Souls but not a member of the Milner Group) opposed
the acceptance of the gift because of the financial commitment in-
volved. Curtis put on an organized drive to mobilize the Group and
put the opposition to flight. The episode is mentioned in a letter from
John Dove to Brand, dated 9 October 1923.

This episode opens up the whole question of the financial resources
available to the Institute and to the Milner Group in general. Unfor-
tunately, we cannot examine the subject here, but it should be obvious
that a group with such connections as the Milner Group would not find

190 / The Anglo-American Establishment

it difficult to finance the RIIA. In general, the funds came from the
various endowments, banks, and industrial concerns with which the
Milner Group had relationships. The original money in 1919, only
£200, came from Abe Bailey. In later years he added to this, and in
1928 gave £5000 a year in perpetuity on the condition that the Institute
never accept members who were not British subjects. When Sir Abe
died in 1940, the annual Report of the Council said: "With the passing
of Sir Bailey the Council and all the members of Chatham House
mourn the loss of their most munificent Founder." Sir Abe had paid
various other expenses during the years. For example, when the
Institute in November 1935 gave a dinner to General Smuts, Sir Abe
paid the cost. All of this was done as a disciple of Lord Milner, for
whose principles of imperial policy Bailey always had complete devo-
tion.

Among the other benefactors of the Institute, we might mention the
following. In 1926 the Carnegie United Kingdom Trustees (Hichens
and Dame Janet Courtney) gave £3000 for books; the Bank of England
gave £600; J. D. Rockefeller gave £3000. In 1929 pledges were ob-
tained from about a score of important banks and corporations,
promising annual grants to the Institute. Most of these had one or more
members of the Milner Group on their boards of directors. Included in
the group were the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company; the Bank of England;
Barclay's Bank; Baring Brothers; the British American Tobacco
Company; the British South Africa Company; Central Mining and In-
vestment Corporation; Erlangers, Ltd; the Ford Motor Company;
Hambros' Bank; Imperial Chemical Industries; Lazard Brothers; Lever
Brothers; Lloyd's; Lloyd's Bank; the Mercantile and General Insurance
Company; the Midland Bank; Reuters; Rothschild and Sons; Stern
Brothers; Vickers-Armstrong; the Westminster Bank; and Whitehall
Securities Corporation.

Since 1939 the chief benefactors of the Institute have been the Astor
family and Sir Henry Price. In 1942 the latter gave £50,000 to buy the
house next door to Chatham House for an expansion of the library (of
which E. L. Woodward was supervisor). In the same year Lord Astor,
who had been giving £2000 a year since 1937, promised £3000 a year
for seven years to form a Lord Lothian Memorial Fund to promote
good relations between the United States and Britain. At the same
time, each of Lord Astor's four sons promised £1000 a year for seven
years to the general fund of the Institute.

Chatham House had close institutional relations with a number of
other similar organizations, especially in the Dominions. It also has a
parallel organization, which was regarded as a branch, in New York.
This latter, the Council on Foreign Relations, was not founded by the
American group that attended the meeting at the Hotel Majestic in

The Royal Institute of International Affairs / 191

1919, but was taken over almost entirely by that group immediately
after its founding in 1919. This group was made up of the experts on
the American delegation to the Peace Conference who were most
closely associated with J. P. Morgan and Company. The Morgan bank
has never made any real effort to conceal its position in regard to the
Council on Foreign Relations. The list of officers and board of directors
are printed in every issue of Foreign Affairs and have always been
loaded with partners, associates, and employees of J. P. Morgan and
Company. According to Stephen King-Hall, the RIIA agreed to regard
the Council on Foreign Relations as its American branch. The relation-
ship between the two has always been very close. For example, the
publications of one are available at reduced prices to the members of
the other; they frequently sent gifts of books to each other (the Council,
for example, giving the Institute a seventy-five-volume set of the
Foreign Relations of the United States in 1933); and there is con-
siderable personal contact between the officers of the two (Toynbee,
for example, left the manuscript of Volumes 7-9 of A Study of History
in the Council's vault during the recent war) .

Chatham House established branch institutes in the various Domin-
ions, but it was a slow process. In each case the Dominion Institute was
formed about a core consisting of the Round Table Group's members in
that Dominion. The earliest were set up in Canada and Australia in
1927. The problem was discussed in 1933 at the first unofficial British
Commonwealth relations conference (Toronto), and the decision made
to extend the system to New Zealand, South Africa, India, and New-
foundland. The last-named was established by Zimmern on a visit
there the same year. The others were set up in 1934-1936.

As we have said, the members of the Dominion Institutes of Interna-
tional Affairs were the members of the Milner Group and their close
associates. In Canada, for example, Robert L. Borden was the first
president (1927-1931); N. W. Rowell was the second president; Sir
Joseph Flavelle and Vincent Massey were vice-presidents; Glazebrook
was honorary secretary; and Percy Corbett was one of the most impor-
tant members. Of these, the first three were close associates of the
Milner Group (especially of Brand) in the period of the First World
War; the last four were members of the Group itself. When the Indian
Institute was set up in 1936, it was done at the Viceroy's house at a
meeting convened by Lord Willingdon (Brand's cousin) . Robert Cecil
sent a message, which was read by Stephen King-Hall. Sir Maurice
Gwyer of All Souls became a member of the council. In South Africa,
B. K. Long of the Kindergarten was one of the most important
members. In the Australian Institute, Sir Thomas Bavin was president
in 1934-1941, while F. W. Eggleston was one of its principal founders
and vice-president for many years. In New Zealand, W. Downie Ste-

192 / The Anglo-American Establishment

wart was president of the Institute of International Affairs from 1935
on. Naturally, the Milner Group did not monopolize the membership
or the official positions in these new institutes any more than they did
in London, for this would have weakened the chief aim of the Group in
setting them up, namely to extend their influence to wider areas.

Closely associated with the various Institutes of International Affairs
were the various branches of the Institute of Pacific Relations. This was
originally founded at Atlantic City in September 1924 as a private
organization to study the problems of the Pacific Basin. It has represen-
tatives from eight countries with interests in the area. The represen-
tatives from the United Kingdom and the three British Dominions were
closely associated with the Milner Group. Originally each country had
its national unit, but by 1939, in the four British areas, the local
Institute of Pacific Relations had merged with the local Institute of In-
ternational Affairs. Even before this, the two Institutes in each country
had practically interchangeable officers, dominated by the Milner
Group. In the United States, the Institute of Pacific Relations never
merged with the Council on Foreign Relations, but the influence of the
associates of J. P. Morgan and other international bankers remained
strong on both. The chief figure in the Institute of Pacific Relations of
the United States was, for many years, Jerome D. Greene, Boston
banker close to both Rockefeller and Morgan and for many years
secretary to Harvard University.

The Institutes of Pacific Relations held joint meetings, similar to
those of the unofficial conferences on British Commonwealth relations
and with a similar group of delegates from the British member
organizations. These meetings met every two years at first, beginning
at Honolulu in 1925 and then assembling at Honolulu again (1927), at
Kyoto (1929), at Shanghai (1931), at Banff (1933), and at Yosemite
Park (1936). F. W. Eggleston, of Australia and the Milner Group,
presided over most of the early meetings. Between meetings, the cen-
tral organization, set up in 1927, was the Pacific Council, a self-
perpetuating body. In 1930, at least five of its seven members were
from the Milner Group, as can be seen from the following list:

The Pacific Council, 1930
Jerome D. Greene of the United States
F. W. Eggleston of Australia
N. W. Rowell of Canada
D. Z. T. Yui of China
Lionel Curtis of the United Kingdom
I. Nitobe of Japan
Sir James Allen of New Zealand

The close relationships among all these organizations can be seen

The Royal Institute of International Affairs / 193

from a tour of inspection which Lionel Curtis and Ivison S. Macadam
(secretary of Chatham House, in succession to F. B. Bourdillon, since
1929) made in 1938. They not only visited the Institutes of Interna-
tional Affairs of Australia, New Zealand, and Canada but attended the
Princeton meeting of the Pacific Council of the IPR. Then they
separated, Curtis going to New York to address the dinner of the Coun-
cil on Foreign Relations and visit the Carnegie Foundation, while
Macadam went to Washington to visit the Carnegie Endowment and
the Brookings Institution.

Through the League of Nations, where the influence of the Milner
Group was very great, the B.IIA was able to extend its intellectual
influence into countries outside the Commonwealth. This was done,
for example, through the Intellectual Cooperation Organization of the
League of Nations. This Organization consisted of two chief parts: (a)
The International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, an advisory
body; and (b) The International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation,
an executive organ of the Committee, with headquarters in Paris. The
International Committee had about twenty members from various
countries; Gilbert Murray was its chief founder and was chairman
from 1928 to its disbandment in 1945. The International Institute was
established by the French government and handed over to the League
of Nations (1926). Its director was always a Frenchman, but its deputy
director and guiding spirit was Alfred Zimmern from 1926 to 1930. It
also had a board of directors of six persons; Gilbert Murray was one of
these from 1926.

It is interesting to note that from 1931 to 1939 the Indian represen-
tative on the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation was
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. In 1931 he was George V Professor of Phi-
lospohy at Calcutta University. His subsequent career is interesting. He
was knighted in 1931, became Spalding Professor of Eastern Religions
and Ethics at Oxford in 1936, and became a Fellow of All Souls in
1944.

Beginning in 1928 at Berlin, Professor Zimmern organized annual
round-table discussion meetings under the auspices of the International
Institute of Intellectual Cooperation. These were called the Interna-
tional Studies Conferences and devoted themselves to an effort to
obtain different national points of view on international problems. The
members of the Studies Conferences were twenty-five organizations.
Twenty of these were Coordinating Committees created for the pur-
pose in twenty different countries. The other five were the following
international organizations: The Academy of International Law at The
Hague; The European Center of the Carnegie Endowment for Interna-
tional Peace; the Geneva School of International Studies; the Graduate
Institute of International Studies at Geneva; the Institute of Pacific

194 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Relations. In two of these five, the influence of the Milner Group and
its close allies was preponderant. In addition, the influence of the
Group was decisive in the Coordinating Committees within the British
Commonwealth, especially in the British Coordinating Committee for
International Studies. The members of this committee were named by
four agencies, three of which were controlled by the Milner Group.
They were: (1) the RIIA, (2) the London School of Economics and
Political Science, (3) the Department of International Politics at
University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, and (4) the Montague
Burton Chair of International Relations at Oxford. We have already
indicated that the Montague Burton Chair was largely controlled by
the Milner Group, since the Group always had a preponderance on the
board of electors to that chair. This was apparently not assured by the
original structure of this board, and it was changed in the middle
1930s. After the change, the board had seven electors: (1) the Vice-
Chancellor of Oxford, ex officio; (2) the Master of Balliol, ex officio; (3)
Viscount Cecil of Chelwood; (4) Gilbert Murray, for life; (5) B. H.
Sumner; (6) Sir Arthur Salter; and (7) Sir. J. Fischer Williams of New
College. Thus, at least four of this board were members of the Group.
In 1947 the electoral board to the Montague Burton Professorship con-
sisted of R. M. Barrington-Ward (editor of The Times); Miss Agnes
Headlam-Morley (daughter of Sir James Headlam-Morley of the
Group); Sir Arthur Salter; R. C. K. Ensor; and one vacancy, to be
filled by Balliol College. It was this board, apparently, that named
Miss Headlam-Morley to the Montague Burton Professorship when
E. L. Woodward resigned in 1947. As can be seen, the Milner Group
influence was predominant, with only one member out of five (Ensor)
clearly not of the Group.

The RIIA had the right to name three persons to the Coordinating
Committee. Two of these were usually of the Milner Group. In 1933,
for example, the three were Lord Meston, Clement Jones, and Toyn-
bee.

The meetings of the International Studies Conferences were organ-
ized in a fashion identical with that used in other meetings controlled
by the Milner Group — for example, in the unofficial conferences on
British Commonwealth relations — and the proceedings were published
by the Institute of Intellectual Cooperation in a similar way to those of
the unofficial conferences just mentioned, except that the various
speakers were identified by name. As examples of the work which the
International Studies Conferences handled, we might mention that at
the fourth and fifth sessions (Copenhagen in 1931 and Milan in 1932),
they examined the problem of "The State and Economic Life"; at the
seventh and eighth session (Paris in 1934 and London in 1935), they ex-
amined the problem of "Collective Security"; and at the ninth and

The Royal Institute of International Affairs / 195

tenth sessions (Madrid in 1936 and Paris 1937) they examined the prob-
lem of "University Teaching of International Relations."

In all of these conferences the Milner Group played a certain part.
They could have monopolized the British delegations at these meetings
if they had wished, but, with typical Milner Group modesty they made
no effort to do so. Their influence appeared most clearly at the London
meeting of 1935. Thirty-nine delegates from fourteen countries
assembled at Chatham House to discuss the problem of collective
security. Great Britain had ten delegates. They were Dr. Hugh Dalton,
Professor H. Lauterpacht, Captain Liddell Hart, Lord Lytton, Pro-
fessor A. D. McNair, Professor C. A. W. Manning, Dr. David Mitrany,
Rear Admiral H. G. Thursfield, Arnold J. Toynbee, and Professor C.
K. Webster. In addition, the Geneva School of International Studies
sent two delegates: J. H. Richardson and A. E. Zimmern. The British
delegation presented three memoranda to the conference. The first, a
study of "Sanctions," was prepared by the RIIA and has been published
since. The second, a study of "British Opinion on Collective Security,"
was prepared by the British Coordinating Committee. The third, a col-
lection of "British Views on Collective Security," was prepared by the
delegates. It had an introduction by Meston and nine articles, of which
one was by G. M. Gathorne-Hardy and one by H. V. Hodson. Zim-
mern also presented a memorandum on behalf of the Geneva School.
Opening speeches were made by Austen Chamberlain, Allen W. Dulles
(of the Council on Foreign Relations), and Louis Eisenmann of the
University of Paris. Closing speeches were made by Lord Meston, Allen
Dulles, and Gilbert Murray. Meston acted as president of the con-
ference, and Dulles as chairman of the study meetings. The pro-
ceedings were edited and published by a committee of two Frenchmen
and A. J. Toynbee.

At the sessions on "Peaceful Change" in 1936-37, Australia presented
one memorandum ("The Growth of Australian Population"). It was
written by F. W. Eggleston and G. Packer. The United Kingdom
presented fifteen memoranda. Eight of these were prepared by the
RIIA, and seven by individuals. Of the seven individual works, two
were written by members of All Souls who were also members of the
Milner Group (C. A. Macartney and C. R. M. F. Cruttwell). The other
five were written by experts who were not members of the Group (A.
M. Carr-Saunders, A. B. Keith, D. Harwood, H. Lauterpacht, and R.
Kuczynski) .

In the middle 1930s the Milner Group began to take an interest in
the problem of refugees and stateless persons, as a result of the persecu-
tions of Hitler and the approaching closing of the Nansen Office of the
League of Nations. Sir Neill Malcolm was made High Commissioner
for German Refugees in 1936. The following year the RIIA began a

196 / The Anglo-American Establishment

research program in the problem. This resulted in a massive report,
edited by Sir John Hope Simpson who was not a member of the Group
and was notoriously unsympathetic to Zionism (1939). In 1938 Roger
M. Makins was made secretary to the British delegation to the Evian
Conference on Refugees. Mr. Makins' full career will be examined
later. At this point it is merely necessary to note that he was educated
at Winchester School and at Christ Church, Oxford, and was elected to
a Fellowship at All Souls in 1925, when only twenty-one years old.
After the Evian Conference (where the British, for strategic reasons,
left all the responsible positions to the Americans), Mr. Makins was
made secretary to the Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees. He
was British Minister in Washington from 1945 to 1947 and is now Assis-
tant Under Secretary in the Foreign Office.

Before leaving the subject of refugees, we might mention that the
chief British agent for Czechoslovakian refugees in 1938-1939 was R. J.
Stopford, an associate of the Milner Group already mentioned.

At the time of the Czechoslovak crisis in September 1938, the RIIA
began to act in an unofficial fashion as an adviser to the Foreign
Office. When war began a year later, this was made formal, and Chat-
ham House became, for all practical purposes, the research section of
the Foreign Office. A special organization was established in the In-
stitute, in charge of A. J. Toynbee, with Lionel Curtis as his chief sup-
port acting "as the permanent representative of the chairman of the
Council, Lord Astor." The organization consisted of the press-clipping
collection, the information department, and much of the library.
These were moved to Oxford and set up in Balliol, All Souls, and
Rhodes House. The project was financed by the Treasury, All Souls,
Balliol, and Chatham House jointly. Within a brief time, the organiza-
tion became known as the Foreign Research and Press Service (FRPS) .
It answered all questions on international affairs from government
departments, prepared a weekly summary of the foreign press, and
prepared special research projects. When Anthony Eden was asked a
question in the House of Commons on 23 July 1941, regarding the ex-
pense of this project, he said that the Foreign Office had given it
£53,000 in the fiscal year 1940-1941.

During the winter of 1939-1940 the general meetings of the Institute
were held in Rhodes House, Oxford, with Hugh Wyndham generally
presiding. The periodical International Affairs suspended publication,
but the Bulletin of International News continued, under the care of
Hugh Latimer and A. J. Brown. The latter had been an undergraduate
at Oxford in 1933-1936, was elected a Fellow of All Souls in 1938, and
obtained a D.Phil, in 1939. The former may be Alfred Hugh Latimer,
who was an undergraduate at Merton from 1938 to 1946 and was
elected to the foundation of the same college in 1946.

The Royal Institute of International Affairs / 197

As the work of the FRPS grew too heavy for Curtis to supervise
alone, he was given a committee of four assistants. They were G. N.
Clark, H. J. Paton, C. K. Webster, and A. E. Zimmern. About the
same time, the London School of Economics established a quarterly
journal devoted to the subject of postwar reconstruction. It was
called Agenda, and G. N. Clark was editor. Clark had been a member
of All Souls since 1912 and was Chichele Professor of Economic History
from 1931 to 1943. Since 1943 he has been Regius Professor of Modern
History at Cambridge. Not a member of the Milner Group, he is close
to it and was a member of the council of Chatham House during the re-
cent war.

At the end of 1942 the Foreign Secretary (Eden) wrote to Lord Astor
that the government wished to take the FRPS over completely. This
was done in April 1943. The existing Political Intelligence Department
of the Foreign Office was merged with it to make the new Research
Department of the Ministry. Of this new department Toynbee was
director and Zimmern deputy director.

This brief sketch of the Royal Institute of International Affairs does
not by any means indicate the very considerable influence which the
organization exerts in English-speaking countries in the sphere to
which it is devoted. The extent of that influence must be obvious. The
purpose of this chapter has been something else: to show that the
Milner Group controls the Institute. Once that is established, the pic-
ture changes. The influence of Chatham House appears in its true
perspective, not as the influence of an autonomous body but as merely
one of many instruments in the arsenal of another power. When the in-
fluence which the Institute wields is combined with that controlled by
the Milner Group in other fields — in education, in administration, in
newspapers and periodicals — a really terrifying picture begins to
emerge. This picture is called terrifying not because the power of the
Milner Group was used for evil ends. It was not. On the contrary, it
was generally used with the best intentions in the world — even if those
intentions were so idealistic as to be almost academic. The picture is
terrifying because such power, whatever the goals at which it may be
directed, is too much to be entrusted safely to any group. That it was
too much to be safely entrusted to the Milner Group will appear quite
clearly in Chapter 12. No country that values its safety should allow
what the Milner Group accomplished in Britain — that is, that a small
number of men should be able to wield such power in administration
and politics, should be given almost complete control over the publica-
tion of the documents relating to their actions, should be able to exer-
cise such influence over the avenues of information that create public
opinion, and should be able to monopolize so completely the writing
and the teaching of the history of their own period.

11

India, 1911-1945

India was one of the primary concerns of both the Cecil Bloc and
Milner Group. The latter probably devoted more time and attention to
India than to any other subject. This situation reached its peak in 1919,
and the Government of India Act of that year is very largely a Milner
Group measure in conception, formation, and execution. The in-
fluence of the two groups is not readily apparent from the lists of
Governors-general (Viceroys) and Secretaries of State for India in the
twentieth century:

Viceroys
Lord Curzon, 1898-1905
Lord Minto, 1905-1910
Lord Hardinge of Penshurst,

1910-1916
Lord Chelmsford, 1916-1921
Lord Reading, 1921-1926
Lord Irwin, 1926-1931
Lord Willingdon, 1931-1936
Lord Linlithgow, 1936-1943

Secretaries of State
Lord George Hamilton, 1895-1903
St. John Brodrick, 1903-1908
John Morley, 1908-1910
Lord Crewe, 1910-1915
Austen Chamberlain, 1915-1917
Edward Montagu, 1917-1922
Lord Peel, 1922-1924
Lord Olivier, 1924
Lord Birkenhead, 1924-1928
Lord Peel, 1928-1929
Wedgwood Benn, 1929-1931
Samuel Hoare, 1931-1935
Lord Zedand, 1935-1940
Leopold Amery, 1940-1945

Of the Viceroys only one (Reading) is clearly of neither the Cecil
Bloc nor the Milner Group; two were members of the Milner Group
(Irwin and Willingdon); another was a member of both groups
(Chelmsford); the rest were of the Cecil Bloc, although in two cases
(Minto and Linlithgow) in a rather peripheral fashion. Three of the
eight were members of All Souls. According to Lord Esher, the ap-
pointment of Lord Hardinge in 1910 was made at his suggestion, by
John Morley. At the time, Esher 's son, the present Viscount Esher, was

198

India: 1911-1945 / 199

acting as unpaid private secretary to Morley, a position he held for five
years (1905-1910). From the same source we learn that the Viceroyship
was offered to Selborne in 1903 and to Esher himself in 1908. The
former failed of appointment because Curzon refused to retire, while
the latter rejected the post as of too limited influence.

Of the thirteen Secretaries of State, two were Labour and two
Liberals. One of these latter (Morley) was close to the Milner Group.
Of the other nine, three were of the Cecil Bloc (St. John Brodrick,
Austen Chamberlain, and Lord Zetland), two were of the Milner
Group (Hoare and Amery), and four were of neither group.

The political and constitutional history of India in the twentieth cen-
tury consists largely of a series of investigations by various committees
and commissions, and a second, and shorter, series of legislative enact-
ments. The influence of the Milner Group can be discerned in both of
these, especially in regard to the former.

Of the important commissions that investigated Indian constitut-
tional questions in the twentieth century, every one has had a member
of the inner circle of the Milner Group. The following list gives the
name of the commission, the dates of its existence, the number of
British members (in distinction from Indian members), the names of
representatives from the Cecil Bloc and Milner Group (with the latter
italicized), and the command number of its report:

1. The Royal Commission on Decentralization in India, 1907-1909, five
members, including W. L. Hichens (Cmd. 4360 of 1908).

2. The Royal Commission on Public Services in India, 1912-1915, nine
members, including Baron Islington, the Earl of Ronaldshay (later
Marquess of Zetland), Sir Valentine Chirol, and H. A. L. Fisher. The
chairman of this commission, Lord Islington, was later father-in-law to
Sir Edward Grigg (Lord Altrincham) (Cmd. 8382 of 1916).

3. The Government of India Constitutional Reform Committee on
Franchise, 1919, four members, including Malcolm Hailey.

4. The Government of India Constitutional Reform Committee on
Functions, 1919, four members, including Richard Feetham as chairman.

5. The Joint Select Committee on the Government of India Bill, 1919,
fourteen members, including Lord Selborne (chairman), Lord Midleton
(St. John Brodrick), Lord Islington, Sir Henry Craik (whose son was
in Milner 's Kindergarten), and W. G. A. Ormsby-Gore (now Lord
Harlech) (Cmd. 97 of 1919).

6. The Committee on Home Administration of Indian Affairs, 1919,
eight members, including W. G. A. Ormsby-Gore (Lord Harlech) (Cmd.
207 of 1919).

7. The Royal Commission on Superior Civil Services in India, 1923-
1924, five members, including Lord Lee of Fareham as chairman and
Reginald Coupland (Cmd. 2128 of 1924).

200 / The Anglo-American Establishment

8. The Indian Statutory Commission, 1927-1930, seven members, with
Sir John Simon as chairman (Cmd. 3568 and 3569 of 1930).

9. The Indian Franchise Committee, 1931-1932, eight members, includ-
ing Lord Lothian as chairman and Lord Dufferin (whose brother, Lord
Basil Blackwood, had been in Milner's Kindergarten) (Cmd. 4086 of
1932).

10. The three Indian Round Table Conferences of 1930-1932 contained a
number of members of the Milner Group. The first session (November
1930-January 1931) had eighty-nine delegates, sixteen from Britain, six-
teen from the Indian States, and fifty-seven from British India. Formed
as they were by a Labour government, the first two sessions had eight
Labour members among the sixteen from Britain. The other eight were
Earl Peel, the Marquess of Zetland, Sir Samuel Hoare, Oliver Stanley,
the Marquess of Reading, the Marquess of Lothian, Sir Robert Hamilton,
and Isaac Foot. Of these eight, two were of the Milner Group (Hoare and
Lothian) and two of the Cecil Bloc (Zetland and Stanley) . The chief ad-
viser to the Indian States Delegation was L. F, Rushbrook Williams of the
Milner Group, who was named to his position by the Chamber of Princes
Special Organization. Among the five officials called in for consultation
by the conference, we find the name of Malcolm Hailey (Cmd. 3778).

The membership of delegations at the second session (September-
December 1931) was practically the same, except that thirty-one addi-
tional members were added and Rushbrook Williams became a delegate
as the representative of the Maharaja of Nawanagar (Cmd. 3997).

At the third session (November-December 1932) there were no Labour
Party representatives. The British delegation was reduced to twelve. Four
of these were of the Milner Group (Hoare, Simon, Lothian, and Irwin,
now Halifax). Rushbrook Williams continued as a delegate of the Indian
States (Cmd. 4238).

11. The Joint Select Committee on Indian Constitutional Reform, ap-
pointed in April 1933, had sixteen members from the House of Commons
and an equal number of Lords. Among these were such members of the
Milner Group as Sir Samuel Hoare, Sir John Simon, Lord Lothian, and
Lord Irwin (Halifax) . The Cecil Bloc was also well represented by Arch-
bishop Lang of Canterbury, Austen Chamberlain, Lord Eustace Percy,
Lord Salisbury, Lord Zetland, Lord Lytton, and Lord Hardinge of
Penshurst.

12. The Cripps Mission, 1942, four members, including Reginald
Coupland, who wrote an unofficial but authoritative book on the mission
as soon as it returned to England (Cmd. 6350).

The chief legislative events in this period were five in number: the
two Indian Councils Acts of 1892 and 1909, the two Government of In-
dia Acts of 1919 and 1935, and the achievement of self-government in
1947.

The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was put through the House of
Commons by George Curzon, at that time Under Secretary in the India

India: 1911-1945 / 201

Office as the protege of Lord Salisbury, who had discovered him in All
Souls nine years earlier. This act was important for two reasons: (1) it
introduced a representative principle into the Indian government by
empowering the Governor-General and Provincial Governors to seek
nominations to the "unofficial" seats in their councils from particular
Indian groups and associations; and (2) it accepted a "communal" basis
for this representation by seeking these nominations separately from
Hindus, Moslems, and others. From these two sources flowed ulti-
mately self-government and partition, although it is perfectly evident
that neither of these was anticipated or desired by the persons who
supported the act.

The nominations for "unofficial" members of the councils provided
in the Act of 1892 became elections in practice, because the Governor-
General always accepted the suggested nominations as his nominees.
This practice became law in the Act of 1909.

The Indian Councils Act of 1909 was passed under a Liberal govern-
ment and was only remotely influenced by the Cecil Bloc or Milner
Group. The Prime Minister, Asquith, was practically a member of the
Cecil Bloc, being an intimate friend of Balfour and Rosebery. This
relationship had been tightened when he married Margot Tennant, a
member of "the Souls," in 1894. Margot Tennant's sister, Laura, had
previously married Alfred Lyttelton, and both sisters had been
intimate friends of Curzon and other members of "the Souls." Asquith
had also been, as we have stated, a close associate of Milner 's. Asquith,
however, was never a member of the Milner Group. After 1890, and
especially after 1915, he increasingly became a member of the Cecil
Bloc. It was Balfour who persuaded Asquith to write his Memories and
Reflections after he (Balfour) had discussed the matter with Margot
Asquith over a tete-a-tete dinner. These dinners were a not infrequent
occurrence on the evenings when Asquith himself dined at his club,
Asquith usually stopping by later in the evening to get his wife and
escort her home. Another indication of Asquith 's feeling toward the
Cecil Bloc can be found in his autobiography under the date 22
December 1919. On that occasion Asquith told Lady Hartington,
daughter of Lord Salisbury, that he "had not expected to live to see the
day when the best safeguard for true liberalism would be found in an
unreformed House of Lords and the Cecil family."

In 1908-1909, however, the situation was somewhat different, and
Asquith could hardly be called a member of the Cecil Bloc. In a
somewhat similar situation, although much closer to the Milner Group
(through H. A. L. Fisher and All Souls), was John Morley, the Secre-
tary of State for India. Lord Minto, the Governor- General in India,
was also a member of the Cecil Bloc in a peripheral fashion but held his

202 / The Anglo-American Establishment

appointment through a family claim on the Governor-Generalship
rather than by favor of the Cecils.

The Act of 1909, however, while not a product of the groups with
which we are concerned, was formed in the same social tradition,
drawn up from the same intellectual and social outlook, and put into
effect in the same fashion. It legalized the principle of election (rather
than nomination) to Indian councils, enlarged their membership to
provide majorities of nonofficials in the provincial councils, and gave
them the power to discuss affairs and pass resolutions. The seats were
allotted to communal groups, with the minorities (like Moslems and
Sikhs) receiving more than their proportionate share and the Moslems
having, in addition, a separate electorate for the incumbents of Mos-
lem seats. This served to encourage extremism among the Moslems and,
while a logical development of 1892, was a long step on the road to
Pakistan. This Act of 1909 was, as we have mentioned, put through the
House of Commons by Sir Thomas Buchanan, a Fellow of All Souls and
an associate of the Cecil Bloc.

The Government of India Act of 1919 is outstanding in many ways.
It is the most drastic and most important reform made in Indian
government in the whole period from 1861 to the achievement of self-
government. Its provisions for the central government of India re-
mained in force, with only slight changes, from 1919 to 1946. It is the
only one of these acts whose "secret" legislative background is no longer
a secret. And it is the only one which indicated a desire on the part of
the British government to establish in India a responsible government
patterned on that in Britain.

The legislative history of the Act of 1919 as generally known is simple
enough. It runs as follows. In August 1917 the Secretary of State for
India, Edwin S. Montagu, issued a statement which read: "The policy
of H.M. Government, with which the Government of India are in
complete accord, is that of the increasing association of Indians in
every branch of the administration and the gradual development of
self-government institutions with a view to the progressive realization
of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British
Empire." The critical word here is responsible government, since the
prospect of eventual self-government had been held out to India for
years. In accordance with this promise, Montagu visited India and, in
cooperation with the Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, issued the Montagu-
Chelmsford Report, indicating the direction of future policy. This
report became the basis for the bill of 1918, which, after a certain
amount of amendment by Lord Selborne's Joint Select Committee,
came into force as the Government of India Act of 1919.

The secret history of this Act is somewhat different, and begins in
Canada in 1909, when Lionel Curtis accepted from his friend William

India: 1911-1945 / 203

Marris the idea that responsible government on the British pattern
should be extended to India. Two years later, Curtis formed a study
group of six or eight persons within the London Round Table Group.
We do not know for certain who were the members of the study group,
but apparently it included Curtis, Kerr, Fisher, and probably Brand.
To these were added three officials of the India Office. These included
Malcolm Seton (Sir Malcolm after 1919), who was secretary to the
Judicial Department of the India Office and joined Curtis's group
about 1913; and Sir William Duke, who was Lieutenant Governor of
Bengal in 1911-1912, senior member of the council of the Governor of
Bengal in 1912-1914, and a member of the Council of India in London
after 1914. At this last date he joined the Curtis group. Both of these
men were important figures in the India Office later, Sir William as
Permanent Under Secretary from 1920 to his death in 1924, and Sir
Malcolm as Assistant Under Secretary (1919-1924) and Deputy Under
Secretary (1924-1933). Sir Malcolm wrote the biographical sketch of
Sir William in the Dictionary of National Biography, and also wrote
the volume on The India Office in the Whitehall Series (1926). The
third member from this same source was Sir Lionel Abrahams, Assis-
tant Under Secretary in the India Office.

The Curtis study group was not an official committee, although
some persons (both at the time and since) have believed it was. Among
these persons would appear to be Lord Chelmsford, for in debate in the
House of Lords in November 1927 he said:

I came home from India in January 1916 for six weeks before I went out
again as Viceroy, and, when I got home, I found that there was a Com-
mittee in existence at the India Office, which was considering on what
lines future constitutional development might take place. That Commit-
tee, before my return in the middle of March gave me a pamphlet con-
taining in broad outline the views which were held with regard to future
constitutional development. When I reached India I showed this pam-
phlet to my Council and also to my noble friend, Lord Meston, who was
then Lieutenant Governor of the United Provinces. It contained, what is
now known as the diarchic principle. . . . Both the Council and Lord
Meston, who was then Sir James Meston, reported adversely on the pro-
posals for constitutional development contained in that pamphlet.

Lord Chelmsford then goes on to say that Austen Chamberlain
combated their objections with the argument that the Indians must ac-
quire experience in self-government, so, after the announcement to this
effect was made publicly in August 1917, the officials in India accepted
dyarchy.

If Lord Chelmsford believed that the pamphlet was an official docu-
ment from a committee in the India Office, he was in error. The other
side of the story was revealed by Lionel Curtis in 1920 in his book

204 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Dyarchy. According to Curtis, the study group was originally formed
to help him write the chapter on India in the planned second volume of
The Commonwealth of Nations. It set as its task "to enquire how self-
government could be introduced and peacefully extended to India."
The group met once a fortnight in London and soon decided on the
dyarchy principle. This principle, as any reader of Curtis's writings
knows, was basic in Curtis's political thought and was the foundation
on which he hoped to build a federated Empire. According to Curtis,
the study group asked itself: "Could not provincial electorates through
legislatures and ministers of their own be made clearly responsible for
certain functions of government to begin with, leaving all others in the
hands of executives responsible as at present to the Government of
India and the Secretary of State? Indian electorates, legislatures, and
executives would thus be given a field for the exercise of genuine
responsibility. From time to time fresh powers could be transferred
from the old governments as the new elective authorities developed and
proved their capacity for assuming them." From this point of view,
Curtis asked Duke to draw up such "a plan of Devolution" for Bengal.
This plan was printed by the group, circulated, and criticized in
typical Milner Group fashion. Then the whole group went to Oxford
for three days and met to discuss it in the old Bursary of Trinity Col-
lege. It was then rewritten. "No one was satisfied." It was decided to
circulate it for further criticism among the Round Table Groups
throughout the world, but Lord Chelmsford wrote from New South
Wales and asked for a copy. Apparently realizing that he was to be the
next Viceroy of India, the group sent a copy to him and none to the
Round Table Groups, "lest the public get hold of it and embarrass
him." It is clear that Chelmsford was committed to a program of
reform along these or similar lines before he went out as Viceroy. This
was revealed in debate in the House of Lords by Lord Crewe on 12
December 1919.

After Chelmsford went to India in March 1916, a new, revised ver-
sion of the study group's plan was drawn up and sent to him in May
1916. Another copy was sent to Canada to catch up with Curtis, who
had already left for India by way of Canada, Australia, and New
Zealand. This itinerary was undoubtedly followed by Curtis in order to
consult with members of the Group in various countries, especially
with Brand in Canada. On his arrival in India, Curtis wrote back to
Kerr in London:

The factor which impressed me most in Canada, New Zealand, and
Australia was the rooted aversion these peoples have to any scheme which
meant their sharing in the Government of India. ... To these young
democratic communities the principle of self-government is the breath of

India: 1911-1945 / 205

their nostrils. It is almost a religion. They feel as if there were something
inherently wrong in one people ruling another. It is the same feeling as
that which makes the Americans dislike governing the Philippines and
decline to restore order in Mexico. My first impressions on this subject
were stongly confirmed on my recent visit to these Dominions. I scarcely
recall one of the numerous meetings I addressed at which I was not asked
why India was not given self-government and what steps were being
taken in that direction.

Apparently this experience strengthened Curtis 's idea that India must
be given responsible government. He probably felt that by giving India
what it and the Dominions wanted for India, both would be bound in
loyalty more closely to Britain. In this same letter to Kerr, Curtis said,
in obvious reference to the Round Table Group:

Our task then is to bring home to the public in the United Kingdom and
the Dominions how India differs from a country like Great Britain on the
one hand and from Central Africa on the other, and how that difference
is now reflected in the character of its government. We must outline
clearly the problems which arise from the contact of East and West and
the disaster which awaits a failure to supply their adequate solution by
realizing and expressing the principle of Government for which we stand.
We must then go on to suggest a treatment of India in the general work of
Imperial reconstruction in harmony with the facts adduced in the fore-
going chapters. And all this must be done with the closest attention to its
effects upon educated opinion here. We must do our best to make Indian
Nationalists realize the truth that like South Africa all their hopes and
aspirations are dependent on the maintenance of the British Common-
wealth and their permanent membership therein.

This letter, written on 13 November 1916, was addressed to Philip
Kerr but was intended for all the members of the Group. Sir Valentine
Chirol corrected the draft, and copies were made available for Meston
and Marris. Then Curtis had a thousand copies printed and sent to
Kerr for distribution. In some way, the extremist Indian nationalists
obtained a copy of the letter and published a distorted version of it.
They claimed that a powerful and secret group organized about The
Round Table had sent Curtis to India to spy out the nationalist plans in
order to obstruct them. Certain sentences from the letter were torn
from their context to prove this argument. Among these was the
reference to Central Africa, which was presented to the Indian people
as a statement that they were as uncivilized and as incapable of self-
government as Central Africans. As a result of the fears created by this
rumor, the Indian National Congress and the Moslem League formed
their one and only formal alliance in the shape of the famous Lucknow
Compact of 29 December 1916. The Curtis letter was not the only fac-
tor behind the Lucknow agreement, but it was certainly very influen-

206 / The Anglo-American Establishment

tial. Curtis was present at the Congress meeting and was horrified at
the version of his letter which was circulating. Accordingly, he
published the correct version with an extensive commentary, under the
title Letters to the People of India (1917). In this he said categorically
that he believed: "(1) That it is the duty of those who govern the whole
British Commonwealth to do anything in their power to enable Indians
to govern themselves as soon as possible. (2) That Indians must also
come to share in the government of the British Commonwealth as a
whole." There can be no doubt that Curtis was sincere in this and that
his view reflected, perhaps in an extreme form, the views of a large and
influential group in Great Britain. The failure of this group to persuade
the Indian nationalists that they were sincere is one of the great
disasters of the century, although the fault is not entirely theirs and
must be shared by others, including Gandhi.

In the first few months of 1917, Curtis consulted groups of Indians
and individual British (chiefly of the Milner Group) regarding the form
which the new constitution would take. The first public use of the
word "dyarchy" was in an open letter of 6 April 1917, which he wrote
to Bhupendra Nath Basu, one of the authors of the Lucknow Compact,
to demonstrate how dyarchy would function in the United Provinces.
In writing this letter, Curtis consulted with Valentine Chirol and
Malcolm Hailey. He then wrote an outline, "The Structure of Indian
Government," which was revised by Meston and printed. This was
submitted to many persons for comment. He then organized a meeting
of Indians and British at Lord Sinha's house in Darjeeling and, after
considerable discussion, drew up a twelve-point program, which was
signed by sixty-four Europeans and ninety Indians. This was sent to
Chelmsford and to Montagu.

In the meantime, in London, preparations were being made to issue
the historic declaration of 20 August 1917, which promised "respon-
sible" government to India. There can be no doubt that the Milner
Group was the chief factor in issuing that declaration. Curtis, in
Dyarchy, says: "For the purpose of the private enquiry above described
the principle of that pronouncement was assumed in 1915." It is
perfectly clear that Montagu (Secretary of State in succession to Austen
Chamberlain from June 1917) did not draw up the declaration. He
drew up a statement, but the India Office substituted for it one which
had been drawn up much earlier, when Chamberlain was still
Secretary of State. Lord Ronaldshay (Lord Zetland), in the third
volume of his Life of Curzon, prints both drafts and claims that the one
which was finally issued was drawn up by Curzon. Sir Stanley Reed,
who was editor of The Times of India from 1907 to 1923, declared at a
meeting of the Royal Institute of International Affiars in 1926 that the
declaration was drawn up by Milner and Curzon. It is clear that some-

India: 1911-1945 / 207

one other than Curzon had a hand in it, and the strongest probability
would be Milner, who was with Curzon in the War Cabinet at the
time. The fact is that Curzon could not have drawn it up alone unless
he was unbelievably careless, because, after it was published, he was
horrified when the promise of "progressive realization of responsible
government in India" was pointed out to him.

Montagu went to India in November 1917, taking Sir William Duke
with him. Curtis, who had been moving about India as the guest of
Stanley Reed, Chirol, Chelmsford, Meston, Marris, and others, was
invited to participate in the Montagu-Chelmsford conferences on
several occasions. Others who were frequently consulted were Hailey,
Meston, Duke, and Chirol. The Montagu-Chelmsford Report was
written by Sir William Marris of Milner's Kindergarten after Curtis
had returned to England. Curtis wrote in Dyarchy in 1920: "It was
afterwards suggested in the press that I had actually drafted the report.
My prompt denial has not prevented a further complaint from many
quarters that Lord Chelmsford and Mr. Montagu were unduly
influenced by an irresponsible tourist. . . . With the exception of Lord
Chelmsford himself I was possibly the only person in India with first-
hand knowledge of responsible government as applied in the Domin-
ions to the institutions of provinces. Whether my knowledge of India
entitled me to advance my views is more open to question. Of this the
reader can judge for himself. But in any case the interviews were
unsought by me." Thus Curtis does not deny the accusation that he was
chiefly responsible for dyarchy. It was believed at the time by persons
in a position to know that he was, and these persons were both for and
against the plan. On the latter side, we might quote Lord Ampthill,
who, as a former acting Viceroy, as private secretary to Joseph
Chamberlain, as Governor of Madras, and as brother-in-law of Samuel
Hoare, was in a position to know what was going on. Lord Ampthill
declared in the House of Lords in 1919: "The incredible fact is that, but
for the chance visit to India of a globe-trotting doctrinaire, with a
positive mania for constitution-mongering, nobody in the world would
ever have thought of so peculiar a notion as Dyarchy. And yet the Joint
Committee tells us in an airy manner that no better plan can be
conceived."

The Joint Committee's favorable report on the Dyarchy Bill was
probably not unconnected with the fact that five out of fourteen
members were from the Cecil Bloc or Milner Group, that the chairman
had in his day presided over meetings of the Round Table Groups and
was regarded by them as their second leader, and that the Joint Com-
mittee spent most of its time hearing witnesses who were close to the
Milner Group. The committee heard Lord Meston longer than any
other witness (almost four days), spent a day with Curtis on the stand,

208 / The Anglo-American Establishment

and questioned, among others, Feetham, Duke, Thomas Holland
(Fellow of All Souls from 1875 to his death in 1926), Michael Sadler (a
close friend of Milner's and practically a member of the Group), and
Stanley Reed. In the House of Commons the burden of debate on the
bill was supported by Montagu, Sir Henry Craik, H. A. L. Fisher,
W. G. A. Ormsby-Gore, and Thomas J. Bennett (an old journalist col-
league of Lord Salisbury and principal owner of The Times of India
from 1892). Montagu and Craik both referred to Lionel Curtis. The
former said: "It is suggested in some quarters that this bill arose spon-
taneously in the minds of the Viceroy and myself without previous in-
quiry or consideration, under the influence of Mr. Lionel Curtis. I
have never yet been able to understand that you approach the merits of
any discussion by vain efforts to approximate to its authorship. I do not
even now understand that India or the Empire owes anything more or
less than a great debt of gratitude to the patriotic and devoted services
Mr. Curtis has given to the consideration of this problem."

Sir Henry Craik later said: "I am glad to join in the compliment paid
to our mutual friend, Mr. Lionel Curtis, who belongs to a very active,
and a very important body of young men, whom I should be the last to
criticize. I am proud to know him, and to pay that respect to him due
from age to youth. He and others of the company of the Round Table
have been doing good work, and part of that good work has been done
in India."

Mr. Fisher had nothing to say about Lionel Curtis but had con-
siderable to say about the bill and the Montagu-Chelmsford Report. He
said: "There is nothing in this Bill which is not contained in that
Report. That Report is not only a very able and eloquent State Paper,
but it is also one of the greatest State Papers which have been produced
in Anglo-Indian history, and it is an open-minded candid State Paper,
a State Paper which does not ignore or gloss over the points of criticism
which have since been elaborated in the voluminous documents which
have been submitted to us." He added, a moment later: "This is a great
Bill." 2 The Round Table, which also approved of the bill, as might be
imagined, referred to Fisher's speech in its issue of September 1919 and
called him "so high an authority." The editor of that issue was Lionel
Curtis.

In the House of Lords there was less enthusiasm. Chief criticism
centered on two basic points, both of which originated with Curtis:
(1) the principle of dyarchy — that is, that government could be
separated into two classes of activities under different regimes; and (2)
the effort to give India "responsible" government rather than merely
"self-government" — that is, the effort to extend to India a form of
government patterned on Britain's. Both of these principles were
criticized vigorously, especially by members of the Cecil Bloc, includ-

India: 1911-1945 / 209

ing Lord Midleton, Lord Lansdowne, Lord Selborne, Lord Salisbury,
and others. Support for the bill came chiefly from Lord Curzon
(Leader in the Upper House) and Lord Islington (Under Secretary in
the India Office) .

As a result of this extensive criticism, the bill was revised con-
siderably in the Joint Committee but emerged with its main outlines
unchanged and became law in December 1919. These main outlines,
especially the two principles of "dyarchy" and "responsibility," were,
as we have said, highly charged with Curtis's own connotations. These
became fainter as time passed, both because of developments in India
and because Curtis from 1919 on became increasingly remote from
Indian affairs. The refusal of the Indian National Congress under Gan-
dhi's leadership to cooperate in carrying on the government under the
Act of 1919 persuaded the other members of the Group (and perhaps
Curtis himself) that it was not possible to apply responsible government
on the British model to India. This point of view, which had been
stated so emphatically by members of the Cecil Bloc even before 1900,
and which formed the chief argument against the Act of 1919 in the
debates in the House of Lords, was accepted by the Milner Group as
their own after 1919. Halifax, Grigg, Amery, Coupland, Fisher, and
others stated this most emphatically from the early 1920s to the middle
1940s. In 1943 Grigg stated this as a principle in his book The British
Commonwealth and quoted with approval Amery 's statement of 30
March 1943 to the House of Commons, rejecting the British parliamen-
tary system as suitable for India. Amery, at that time Secretary of State
for India, had said: "Like wasps buzzing angrily up and down against a
window pane when an adjoining window may be wide open, we are all
held up, frustrated and irritated by the unrealized and unsuperable
barrier of our constitutional prepossessions." Grigg went even further,
indeed, so far that we might suspect that he was deprecating the use of
parliamentary government in general rather than merely in India. He
said:

It is entirely devoid of flexibility and quite incapable of engendering the
essential spirit of compromise in countries where racial and communal
divisions present the principal political difficulty. The idea that freedom
to be genuine must be accommodated to this pattern is deeply rooted in
us, and we must not allow our statesmanship to be imprisoned behind the
bars of our own experience. Our insistence in particular on the principle
of a common roll of electors voting as one homogeneous electorate has
caused reaction in South Africa, rebellion or something much too like it in
Kenya, and deadlock in India, because in the different conditions of those
countries it must involve the complete and perpetual dominance of a
single race or creed.

Unfortunately, as Reginald Coupland has pointed out in his book,

210 / The Anglo-American Establishment

India, a Re-statement (1945), all agreed that the British system of
government was unsuited to India, but none made any effort to find an
indigenous system that would be suitable. The result was that the
Milner Group and their associates relaxed in their efforts to prepare
Indians to live under a parliamentary system and finally cut India loose
without an indigenous system and only partially prepared to manage a
parliamentary system.

This decline in enthusiasm for a parliamentary system in India was
well under way by 1921. In the two year-interval from 1919 to 1921,
the Group continued as the most important British factor in Indian af-
fairs. Curtis was editor of The Round Table in this period and con-
tinued to agitate the cause of the Act of 1919. Lord Chelmsford re-
mained a Viceroy in this period. Meston and Hailey were raised to the
Viceroy's Executive Council. Sir William Duke became Permanent
Under Secretary, and Sir Malcolm Seton became Assistant Under
Secretary in the India Office. Sir William Marris was made Home
Secretary of the Government of India and Special Reforms Commis-
sioner in charge of setting up the new system. L. F. Rushbrook
Williams was given special duty at the Home Department, Govern-
ment of India, in connection with the reforms. Thus the Milner Group
was well placed to put the new law into effect. The effort was largely
frustrated by Gandhi's boycott of the elections under the new system.
By 1921 the Milner Group had left Indian affairs and shifted its chief
interest to other fields. Curtis became one of the chief factors in Irish
affairs in 1921; Lord Chelmsford returned home and was raised to a
Viscounty in the same year; Meston retired in 1919; Marris became
Governor of Assam in 1921; Hailey became Governor of the Punjab in
1924; Duke died in 1924; and Rushbrook Williams became director of
the Central Bureau of Information, Government of India, in 1920.

This does not indicate that the Milner Group abandoned all interest
in India by 1924 or earlier, but the Group never showed such concen-
trated interest in the problem of India again. Indeed, the Group never
displayed such concentrated interest in any problem either earlier or
later, with the single exception of the effort to form the Union of South
Africa in 1908-1909.

The decade 1919-1929 was chiefly occupied with efforts to get Gan-
dhi to permit the Indian National Congress to cooperate in the affairs
of government, so that its members and other Indians could acquire the
necessary experience to allow the progressive realization of self-
government. The Congress Party, as we have said, boycotted the elec-
tions of 1920 and cooperated in those of 1924 only for the purpose of
wrecking them. Nonetheless, the system worked, with the support of
moderate groups, and the British extended one right after another in
steady succession. Fiscal automony was granted to India in 1921, and

India: 1911-1945 / 211

that country at once adopted a protective tariff, to the considerable in-
jury of British textile manufacturing. The superior Civil Services were
opened to Indians in 1924. Indians were admitted to Woolwich and
Sandhurst in the same year, and commissions in the Indian Army were
made available to them.

The appointment of Baron Irwin of the Milner Group to be Viceroy
in 1926 — an appointment in which, according to A. C. Johnson's
biography Viscount Halifax (1941), "the influence of Geoffrey Dawson
and other members of The Times' editorial staff" may have played a
decisive role— was the chief step in the effort to achieve some real pro-
gress under the Act of 1919 before that Act came under the critical ex-
amination of another Royal Commission, scheduled for 1929. The new
Viceroy's statement of policy, made in India, 17 July 1926, was, ac-
cording to the same source, embraced by The Times in an editorial
"which showed in no uncertain terms that Irwin's policy was appreci-
ated and underwritten by Printing House Square."

Unfortunately, in the period 1924-1931 the India Office was not in
control of either the Milner Group or Cecil Bloc. For various reasons,
of which this would seem to be the most important, coordination
between the Secretary of State and the Viceroy and between Britain
and the Indian nationalists broke down at the most crucial moments.
The Milner Group, chiefly through The Times, participated in this
situation in the period 1926-1929 by praising their man, Lord Irwin,
and adversely criticizing the Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead.
Relationships between Birkenhead and the Milner (and Cecil) Group
had not been cordial for a long time, and there are various indications
of feuding from at least 1925. We may recall that in April 1925 a
secret, or at least unofficial, "committee" of Milner Group and Cecil
Bloc members had nominated Lord Milner for the post of Chancellor of
Oxford University. Lord Birkenhead had objected both to the can-
didate and to the procedure. In regard to the candidate, he would have
preferred Asquith. In regard to the procedure, he demanded to know
by what authority this "committee" took upon itself the task of naming
a chancellor to a university of which he (Lord Birkenhead) had been
High Steward since 1922. This protest, as usual when Englishmen of
this social level are deeply moved, took the form of a letter to The
Times. It received a tart answer in a letter, written in the third person,
in which he was informed that this committee had existed before the
World War, and that, when it was reconstituted at the end of the war,
Mr. F. E. Smith had been invited to be a member of it but had not seen
fit even to acknowledge the invitation.

The bad relationship between the Milner Group and Lord
Birkenhead was not the result of such episodes as this but rather, it
would seem, based on a personal antipathy engendered by the

212 / The Anglo-American Establishment

character of Lord Birkenhead and especially by his indiscreet and
undiplomatic social life and political activity. Nonetheless, Lord
Birkenhead was a man of unquestioned vigor and ability and a man of
considerable political influence from the day in 1906 when he had won
a parliamentary seat for the Conservatives in the face of a great Liberal
tidal wave. As a result, he had obtained the post of Secretary of State
for India in November 1924 at the same time that Leopold Amery went
to the Colonial Office. The episode regarding the Milner candidacy to
the Oxford Chancellorship occurred six months later and was prac-
tically a direct challenge from Birkenhead to Amery, since at that time
the latter was Milner's active political lieutenant and one of the chief
movers in the effort to make him Chancellor.

Thus, in the period 1926-1929, the Milner Group held the Viceroy's
post but did not hold the post of Secretary of State. The relationship
between these two posts was such that good government could not be
obtained without close cooperation between them. Such cooperation
did not exist in this period. As far as the constitutional development
was concerned, this lack of cooperation appeared in a tendency on the
part of the Secretary of State to continue to seek a solution of the prob-
lem along the road marked by the use of a unilateral British
investigatory commission, and a tendency on the part of Irwin (and the
Milner Group) to seek a solution along the newer road of cooperative
discussion with the Indians. These tendencies did not appear as
divergent routes until after the Simon Commission had begun its
labors, with the result that accumulating evidence that the latter road
would be used left that unilateral commission in an unenviable
position.

The Government of India Act of 1919 had provided that an
investigation should be made of the functioning of the Act after it had
been in effect for ten years. The growing unrest of the Indians and their
failure to utilize the opportunities of the Act of 1919 persuaded many
Englishmen (including most of the Milner Group) that the promised
Statutory Commission should begin its work earlier than anticipated
and should direct its efforts rather at finding the basis for a new consti-
tutional system than at examining the obvious failure of the system pro-
vided in 1919.

The first official hint that the date of the Statutory Commission
would be moved up was given by Birkenhead on 30 March 1927, in
combination with some rather "arrogant and patronizing" remarks
about Indian politics. The Times, while criticizing Birkenhead for his
additional remarks, took up the suggestion regarding the commission
and suggested in its turn "that the ideal body would consist of judicially
minded men who were able to agree." This is, of course, exactly what

India: 1911-1945 / 213

was obtained. The authorized biography Viscount Halifax, whence
these quotations have been taken, adds at this point: "It is interesting to
speculate how far Geoffrey Dawson, the Editor, was again expressing
Irwin's thoughts and whether a deliberate ballon d'essai was being put
up in favor of Sir John Simon."

The Simon Commission was exactly what The Times had wanted, a
body of "judicially minded men who were able to agree." Its chairman
was the most expensive lawyer in England, a member of the Cecil Bloc
since he was elected to All Souls in 1897, and in addition a member of
the two extraordinary clubs already mentioned, Grillion's and The
Club. Although he was technically a Liberal, his associations and
inclinations were rather on the Conservative side, and it was no sur-
prise in 1931 when he became a National Liberal and occupied one of
the most important seats in the Cabinet, the Foreign Office. From this
time on, he was closely associated with the policies of the Milner Group
and, in view of his personal association with the leaders of the Group in
All Souls, may well be regarded as a member of the Group. As chair-
man of the Statutory Commission, he used his legal talents to the full to
draw up a report on which all members of the commission could agree,
and it is no small example of his abilities that he was able to get an
unanimous agreement on a program which in outline, if not in all its
details, was just what the Milner Group wanted.

Of the six other members of the Commission, two were Labourite
(Clement Attlee and Vernon Hartshorn). The others were Unionist or
Conservative. Viscount Burnham of Eton and Balliol (1884) had been a
Unionist supporter of the Cecil Bloc in Commons from 1885 to 1906,
and his father had been made baronet and baron by Lord Salisbury.
His own title of Viscount came from Lloyd George in 1919.

The fifth member of the Commission, Donald Palmer Howard,
Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal, of Eton and Trinity College,
Cambridge, had no special claim to fame except that he had been a
Unionist M.P. in 1922-1926.

The sixth member, Edward Cecil Cadogan of Eton and Balliol
(1904), was the sixth son of Earl Cadogan and thus the older brother of
Sir Alexander Cadogan, British delegate to the United Nations. Their
father, Earl Cadogan, grandnephew of the first Duke of Wellington,
had been Lord Privy Seal in Lord Salisbury's second government and
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in Salisbury's third government. Edward,
who was knighted in 1939, had no special claim to fame except that he
was a Unionist M.P. from 1922 to 1935 and was Chairman of the House
of Commons under the National Government of 1931-1935.

The seventh member, George R. Lane-Fox (Baron Bingley since
1933) of Eton and New College, was a Unionist M.P. from 1906 to 1931

214 / The Anglo-American Establishment

and Secretary of Mines from 1922 to 1928. He is a brother-in-law and
lifelong friend of Lord Halifax, having married the Honourable Mary
Wood in 1903.

The most extraordinary fact about the Simon Commission was the
lack of qualification possessed by its members. Except for the
undoubted advantages of education at Eton and Oxford, the members
had no obvious claims to membership on any committee considering
Indian affairs. Indeed, not one of the eight members had had any
previous contact with this subject. Nevertheless, the commission pro-
duced an enormous two-volume report which stands as a monumental
source book for the study of Indian problems in this period. When, to
the lack of qualifications of its members, we add the fact that the com-
mission was almost completely boycotted by Indians and obtained its
chief contact with the natives by listening to their monotonous chants
of "Simon, go back," it seems more than a miracle that such a valuable
report could have emerged from their investigations. The explanation
is to be found in the fact that they received full cooperation from the
staff of the Government of India, including members of the Milner
Group.

It is clear that by the end of 1928 the Milner Group, as a result of the
strong Indian opposition to the Simon Commission, the internal strug-
gle within that commission between Simon and Burnham (because of
the latter's refusal to go as far as the former desired in the direction of
concessions to the Indians), and their inability to obtain cooperation
from the Secretary of State (as revealed in the steady criticism of
Birkenhead in The Times), had decided to abandon the commission
method of procedure in favor of a round-table method of procedure. It
is not surprising that the Round Table Groups should prefer a round-
table method of procedure even in regard to Indian affairs, where
many of the participants would have relatively little experience in the
typical British procedure of agreement through conference. To the
Milner Group, the round-table method was not only preferable in itself
but was made absolutely necessary by the widespread Indian criticism
of the Simon Commission for its exclusively British personnel. This
restriction had been adopted originally on the grounds that only a
purely British and purely parliamentary commission could commit
Parliament in some degree to acceptance of the recommendations of
the commission — at least, this was the defense of the restricted
membership made to the Indians by the Viceroy on 8 November 1927.
In place of this argument, the Milner Group now advanced a
somewhat more typical idea, namely, that only Indian participation
on a direct and equal basis could commit Indians to any plans for the
future of India. By customary Milner Group reasoning, they decided
that the responsibility placed on Indians by making them participate in

India: 1911-1945 / 215

the formulation of plans would moderate the extremism of their
demands and bind them to participate in the execution of these plans
after they were enacted into law. This basic idea — that if you have
faith in people, they will prove worthy of that faith, or, expressed in
somewhat more concrete terms, that if you give dissatisfied people
voluntarily more than they expect and, above all, before they really
expect to get it, they will not abuse the gift but will be sobered
simultaneously by the weight of responsibility and the sweetness of
gratitude — was an underlying assumption of the Milner Group's
activities from 1901 to the present. Its validity was defended (when
proof was demanded) by a historical example — that is, by contrasting
the lack of generosity in Britain's treatment of the American Colonies
in 1774 with the generosity in her treatment of the Canadian Colonies
in 1839. The contrast between the "Intolerable Acts" and the Durham
Report was one of the basic ideas at the back of the minds of all the
important members of the Milner Group. In many of those minds,
however, this assumption was not based on political history at all but
had a more profound and largely unconscious basis in the teachings of
Christ and the Sermon on the Mount. This was especially true of Lionel
Curtis, John Dove, Lord Lothian, and Lord Halifax. Unless this idea is
recognized, it is not possible to see the underlying unity behind the
actions of the Group toward the Boers in 1901-1910, toward India in
1919 and 1935, and toward Hitler in 1934-1939.

These ideas as a justification of concessions to India are to be found
in Milner Group discussions of the Indian problem at all periods,
especially just before the Act of 1919. A decade later they were still
exerting their influence. They will be found, for example, in The
Round Table articles on India in September 1930 and March 1931.
The earlier advocated the use of the round-table method but warned
that it must be based on complete equality for the Indian members. It
continued: "Indians should share equally with Great Britain the
responsibility for reaching or failing to reach an agreement as to what
the next step in Indian constitutional development should be. It is no
longer a question, as we see it, of Great Britain listening to Indian
representatives and then deciding for herself what the next Indian
constitution should be. . . . The core of the round table idea is that
representative Britons and representative Indians should endeavour to
reach an agreement, on the understanding that if they can reach an
agreement, each will loyally carry it through to completion, as was the
case with Ireland in 1922." As seen by the Milner Group, Britain's
responsibility was

her obligation to help Indians to take maximum responsibility for India's
government on their own shoulders, and to insist on their doing so, not

216 / The Anglo-American Establishment

only because it is the right thing in itself, but because it is the most certain
antidote to the real danger of anarchy which threatens India unless In-
dians do learn to carry responsibility for government at a very early date.
There is less risk in going too fast in agreement and cooperation with
political India than in going at a more moderate pace without its agree-
ment and cooperation. Indeed, in our view, the most successful founda-
tion for the Round Table Conference would be that Great Britain should
ask the Indian delegates to table agreed proposals and then do her utmost
to accept them and place on Indian shoulders the responsibility for
carrying them into effect.

It is very doubtful if the Milner Group could have substituted the
round-table method for the commission method in quite so abrupt a
fashion as it did, had not a Labour government come to office early in
1929. As a result, the difficult Lord Birkenhead was replaced as
Secretary of State by the much more cooperative Mr. Wedgewood
Benn (Viscount Stansgate since 1941). The greater degree of coopera-
tion which the Milner Group received from Benn than from
Birkenhead may be explained by the fact that their hopes for India
were not far distant from those held in certain circles of the Labour
Party. It may also be explained by the fact that Wedgewood Benn was
considerably closer, in a social sense, to the Milner Group than was
Birkenhead. Benn had been a Liberal M.P. from 1906 to 1927; his
brother Sir Ernest Benn, the publisher, had been close to the Milner
Group in the Ministry of Munitions in 1916-1917 and in the Ministry of
Reconstruction in 1917-1918; and his nephew John, oldest son of Sir
Ernest, married the oldest daughter of Maurice Hankey in 1929.
Whatever the cause, or combination of causes, Lord Irwin's suggestion
that the round-table method be adopted was accepted by the Labour
government. The suggestion was made when the Viceroy returned to
London in June 1929, months before the Simon Report was drafted and
a year before it was published. With this suggestion Lord Irwin com-
bined another, that the government formally announce that its goal for
India was "Dominion status." The plan leaked out, probably because
the Labour government had to consult with the Liberal Party, on
which its majority depended. The Liberals (Lord Reading and Lloyd
George) advised against the announcement, but Irwin was instructed
to make it on his return to India in October. Lord Birkenhead heard of
the plan and wrote a vigorous letter of protest to The Times. When
Geoffrey Dawson refused to publish it, it appeared in the Daily Tele-
graph, thus repeating the experience of Lord Lansdowne's even more
famous letter of 1917.

Lord Irwin's announcement of the Round Table Conference and of
the goal of Dominion status, made in India on 31 October 1929,
brought a storm of protest in England. It was rejected by Lord Reading

India: 1911-1945 / 217

and Lloyd George for the Liberals and by Lord Birkenhead and
Stanley Baldwin for the Conservatives. It is highly unlikely that the
Milner Group were much disturbed by this storm. The reason is that
the members of the Group had already decided that "Dominion status"
had two meanings — one meaning for Englishmen, and a second, rather
different, meaning for Indians. As Lord Irwin wrote in a private
memorandum in November 1929:

To the English conception, Dominion Status now connotes, as indeed the
word itself implies, an achieved constitutional position of complete free-
dom and immunity from interference by His Majesty's Government in
London. . . . The Indian seems generally to mean something different.
. . . The underlying element in much of Indian political thought seems to
have been the desire that, by free conference between Great Britain and
India, a constitution should be fashioned which may contain within itself
the seed of full Dominion Status, growing naturally to its full develop-
ment in accordance with the particular circumstances of India, without
the necessity — the implications of which the Indian mind resents — of
further periodic enquiries by way of Commission. What is to the English-
man an accomplished process is to the Indian rather a declaration of
right, from which future and complete enjoyment of Dominion privilege
will spring. 3

This distinction, without any reference to Lord Irwin (whose
memorandum was not published until 1941), was also made in the
September 1930 issue of The Round Table. On this basis, for the sake of
appeasement of India, the Milner Group was willing to promise India
"Dominion status" in the Indian meaning of the expression and allow
the English who misunderstood to cool off gradually as they saw that
the development was not the one they had feared. Indeed, to the
Milner Group, it probably appeared that the greater the rage in Brit-
ain, the greater the appeasement in India.

Accordingly, the first session of the Round Table Conference was
called for November 1930. It marked an innovation not only because of
the status of equality and responsibility which it placed on the Indians,
but also because, for the first time, it tried to settle the problem of the
Indian States within the same framework as it settled the constitutional
problem of British India. This was a revolutionary effort, and its
degree of success was very largely due to the preparatory work of Lord
Irwin, acting on the advice of Malcolm Hailey.

The Indian States had remained as backward, feudalistic, and ab-
solutist enclaves, within the territorial extent of British India and
bound to the British Raj by individual treaties and agreements. As
might be expected from the Milner Group, the solution which they pro-
posed was federation. They hoped that devolution in British India
would secure a degree of provincial autonomy that would make it

218 / The Anglo-American Establishment

possible to bind the provinces and the Indian States within the same
federal structure and with similar local autonomy. However, the
Group knew that the Indian States could not easily be federated with
British India until their systems of government were raised to some ap-
proximation of the same level. For this reason, and to win the Princes
over to federation, Lord Irwin had a large number of personal con-
sultations with the Princes in 1927 and 1928. At some of these he lec-
tured the Princes on the principles of good government in a fashion
which came straight from the basic ideology of the Milner Group. The
memorandum which he presented to them, dated 14 June 1927 and
published in Johnson's biography, Viscount Halifax, could have been
written by the Kindergarten. This can be seen in its definitions of the
function of government, its emphasis on the reign of law, its advocacy
of devolution, its homily on the duty of princes, its separation of
responsibility in government from democracy in government, and its
treatment of democracy as an accidental rather than an essential
characteristic of good government.

The value of this preparatory work appeared at the first Round
Table Conference, where, contrary to all expectations, the Indian
Princes accepted federation. The optimism resulting from this agree-
ment was, to a considerable degree, dissipated, however, by the refusal
of Gandhi's party to participate in the conference unless India were
granted full and immediate Dominion status. Refusal of these terms
resulted in an outburst of political activity which made it necessary for
Irwin to find jails capable of holding sixty thousand Indian agitators at
one time.

The view that the Round Table Conference represented a complete
repudiation of the Simon Commission's approach to the Indian prob-
lem was assiduously propagated by the Milner Group in order to pre-
vent Indian animosity against the latter from being carried over
against the former. But the differences were in detail, since in main
outline both reflected the Group's faith in federation, devolution,
responsibility, and minority rights. The chief recommendations of the
Simon Commission were three in number: (1) to create a federation of
British India and the Indian States by using the provinces of the former
as federative units with the latter; (2) to modify the central government
by making the Legislative Assembly a federal organization but other-
wise leave the center unchanged; (3) to end dyarchy in the provinces by
making Indians responsible for all provincial activities. It also ad-
vocated separation of Burma from India.

These were also the chief conclusions of the various Round Table
Conferences and of the government's White Papers of December 1931
(Cmd. 3972) and of March 1933 (Cmd. 4268). The former was
presented to Parliament and resulted in a debate and vote of con-

India: 1911-1945 / 219

fidence on the government's policy in India as stated in it. The attack
was led by Winston Churchill in the Commons and by Lords Lloyd,
Salisbury, Midleton, and Sumner in the House of Lords. None of these
except Churchill openly attacked the government's policy, the others
contenting themselves with advising delay in its execution. The govern-
ment was defended by Samuel Hoare, John Simon, and Stanley
Baldwin in the Commons and by Lords Lothian, Irwin, Zetland,
Dufferin, and Hailsham, as well as Archbishop Lang, in the Lords.
Lord Lothian, in opening the debate, said that while visiting in India
in 1912 he had written an article for an English review saying that the
Indian Nationalist movement "was essentially healthy, for it was a
movement for political virtue and self-respect," although the Indian
Civil Servant with whom he was staying said that Indian Nationalism
was sedition. Lord Lothian implied that he had not changed his opin-
ion twenty years later. In the Lower House the question came to a vote,
which the government easily carried by 369 to 43. In the majority were
Leopold Amery, John J. Astor, John Buchan, Austen Chamberlain,
Viscount Cranborne, Samuel Hoare, W. G. A. Ormsby-Gore, Lord
Eustace Percy, John Simon, and D. B. Somervell. In the minority were
Churchill, George Balfour, and Viscount Wolmer.

Practically the same persons appeared on the same sides in the
discussion regarding the White Paper of 1933. This document, which
embodied the government's suggestions for a bill on Indian constitu-
tional reform, was defended by various members of the Milner Group
outside of Parliament, and anonymously in The Round Table. John
Buchan wrote a prefece to John Thompson's India: The White Paper
(1933), in which he defended the extension of responsible government
to India, saying, "We cannot exclude her from sharing in what we
ourselves regard as the best." Samuel Hoare defended it in a letter to his
constituents at Chelsea. Malcolm Hailey defended it before the Royal
Empire Society Summer School at Oxford, in a speech afterwards
published in The Asiatic Review. Hailey had resigned as Governor of
the United Provinces in India in order to return to England to help the
government put through its bill. During the long period required to ac-
complish this, Samuel Hoare, who as Secretary of State for India was
the official government spokesman on the subject, had Hailey con-
stantly with him as his chief adviser and support. It was this support
that permitted Hoare, whose knowledge of India was definitely
limited, to conduct his astounding campaign for the Act of 1935.

The White Paper of 1933 was presented to a Joint Select Committee
of both Houses. It was publicly stated as a natural action on the part of
the government that this committee be packed with supporters of the
bill. For this reason Churchill, George Balfour, and Lord Wolmer
refused to serve on it, although Josiah Wedgwood, a Labour Member

220 / The Anglo-American Establishment

who opposed the bill, asked to be put on the committee because it was
packed.

The Joint Select Committee, as we have seen, had thirty-two
members, of whom at least twelve were from the Cecil Bloc and Milner
Group and supported the bill. Four were from the inner circles of the
Milner Group. The chief witnesses were Sir Samuel Hoare; who gave
testimony for twenty days; Sir Michael O'Dwyer, who gave testimony
for four days; and Winston Churchill, who gave testimony for three
days. The chief witness was thus Hoare, who answered 5594 questions
from the committee. At all times Hoare had Malcolm Hailey at his side
for advice.

The fashion in which the government conducted the Joint Select
Committee aroused a good deal of unfavorable comment. Lord
Rankeillour in the House of Lords criticized this, especially the fashion
in which Hoare used his position to push his point of view and to in-
fluence the evidence which the committee received from other
witnesses. He concluded: "This Committee was not a judicial body,
and its conclusions are vitiated thereby. You may say that on their
merits they have produced a good or a bad Report, but what you can-
not say is that the Report is the judicial finding of unbiased or impartial
minds." As a result of such complaints, the House of Commons Com-
mittee on Privilege investigated the conduct of the Joint Select Com-
mittee. It found that Hoare's actions toward witnesses and in regard to
documentary evidence could be brought within the scope of the
Standing Orders of the House if a distinction were made between
judicial committees and nonjudicial committees and between witnesses
giving facts and giving opinions. These distinctions made it possible to
acquit Sir Samuel of any violation of privilege, but aroused such
criticism that a Select Committee on Witnesses was formed to examine
the rules for dealing with witnesses. In its report, on 4 June 1935, this
Select Committee rejected the validity of the distinctions between
judicial and nonjudicial and between fact and opinion made by the
Committee on Privilege, and recommended that the Standing Rules be
amended to forbid any tampering with documents that had been
received by a committee. The final result was a formal acquittal, but a
moral condemnation, of Hoare's actions in regard to the Joint Select
Committee on the Government of India.

The report of the Joint Select Committee was accepted by nineteen
out of its thirty-two members. Nine voted against it (five Conservative
and four Labour Members). A motion to accept the report and ask the
government to proceed to draw up a bill based on it was introduced in
the House of Lords by the President of the Board of Education, Lord
Halifax (Lord Irwin), on 12 December 1934, in a typical Milner Group
speech. He said: "As I read it, the whole of our British and Imperial ex-

India: 1911-1945 I 221

perience shouts at us the warning that representative government
without responsibility, once political consciousness has been aroused, is
apt to be a source of great weakness and, not impossibly, great danger.
We had not learned that lesson, let me remind the House, in the eigh-
teenth century, and we paid very dearly for it. We learned it some sixty
years later and, by having learned it, we transformed the face and
history of Canada." Lord Salisbury once again advised delay, and at-
tacked the idea that parliamentary government could work in India or
indeed had worked anywhere outside the British Commonwealth.
Lord Snell, speaking for the Labour opposition, objected to the lack of
protection against economic exploitation for the Indian masses, the
omission of any promise of Dominion status for India, the weighing of
the franchise too heavily on the side of the landlords and too lightly on
the side of women or of laborers, the provisions for a second chamber,
and the use of indirect election for the first chamber. Lord Lothian
answered both speakers, supporting only one criticism, that against in-
direct election to the central assembly. He made the significant state-
ment that he did not fear to turn India over to the Congress Party of
Gandhi because (1) "though I disagree with almost everything that
they say in public and most of their political programme, I have a
sneaking sympathy with the emotion which lies underneath them . . .
the aspiration of young impetuous India anxious to take responsibility
on its own shoulders"; and (2) "because I believe that the one political
lesson, which has more often been realized in the British Com-
monwealth of Nations than anywhere else in the world, is that the one
corrective of political extremism is to put responsibility upon the ex-
tremists, and, by these proposals, that is exactly what we are doing."
These are typical Milner Group reasons.

In the debate, Halifax was supported by Archbishop Lang and Lords
Zetland, Linlithgow, Midleton, Hardinge of Penshurst, Lytton, and
Reading. Lord Salisbury was supported by Lords Phillimore,
Rankeillour, Ampthill, and Lloyd. In the division, Salisbury's motion
for delay was beaten by 239 to 62. In addition to the lords mentioned,
the majority included Lords Dufferin, Linlithgow, Cranbrook,
Cobham, Cecil of Chelwood, Goschen, Hampden, Elton, Lugard,
Meston, and Wemyss, while the minority included Lords Birkenhead,
Westminster, Carnock, Islington, and Leconfield. It is clear that the
Milner Group voted completely with the majority, while the Cecil Bloc
was split.

The bill was introduced in the House of Commons on 6 February
1935 by Sir Samuel Hoare. As was to be expected, his argument was
based on the lessons to be derived from the error of 1774 and the success
of 1839 in North America. The government's actions, he declared, were
based on "plain, good intentions." He was mildly criticized from the

222 / The Anglo-American Establishment

left by Attlee and Sir Herbert Samuel; supported by Sir Arthur Steel-
Maitland, Sir Edward Grigg, and others; and then subjected to a long-
sustained barrage from Winston Churchill. Churchill had already
revealed his opinion of the bill over the BBC when he said, on 29
January 1935, that it was "a monstrous monument of sham built by the
pygmies." He continued his attack in a similar vein, with the result that
almost every government speaker felt the need to caution him that his
intemperance was hurting his own cause. From our point of view, his
most interesting statement, and one which was not contradicted, said:
"I have watched this story from its very unfolding, and what has struck
me more than anything else about it has been the amazingly small
number of people who have managed to carry matters to their present
lamentable pitch. You could almost count them on the fingers of one
hand. I have also been struck by the prodigious power which this group
of individuals have been able to exert and relay, to use a mechanical
term, through the vast machinery of party, of Parliament, and of
patronage, both here and in the East. It is tragical that they should
have been able to mislead the loyalties and use the assets of the Empire
to its own undoing. I compliment them on their skill, and I compliment
them also on their disciples. Their chorus is exceedingly well drilled."
This statement was answered by Lord Eustace Percy, who quoted Lord
Hugh Cecil on "profitable mendacity." This led to an argument, in
which both sides appealed to the Speaker. Order was restored when
Lord Eustace said of Churchill, "I would never impute to him . . . any
intention of making a charge which he did not believe himself."

It is quite clear that Churchill believed his charge and was referring
to what we have called the Milner Group, although he would not have
known it under that name, nor would he have realized its extreme
ramifications. He was merely referring to the extensive influence of
that close group of associates which included Hoare, Hailey, Curtis,
Lothian, Dawson, Amery, Grigg, and Halifax.

After four days of debate on the second reading, the opposition
amendment was rejected by 404-133, and the bill passed to the com-
mittee stage. In the majority were Amery, Buchan, Grigg, Hoare,
Ormsby-Gore, Simon, Sir Donald Somervell, and Steel-Maitland. The
minority consisted of three ill-assorted groups: the followers of
Churchill, the leaders of the Labour Party, and a fragment of the Cecil
Bloc with a few others.

The Government of India Act of 1935 was the longest bill ever sub-
mitted to Parliament, and it underwent the longest debate in history
(over forty days in Commons). In general, the government let the op-
position talk itself out and then crushed it on each division. In the third
reading, Churchill made his final speech in a tone of baneful warning

India: 1911-1945 / 223

regarding the future of India. He criticized the methods of pressure
used by Hoare and said that in ten years' time the Secretary of State
would be haunted by what had been done, and it could be said of him,

"God save thee, ancient Mariner,

From the fiends that plague thee thus.

Why look'st thou so?" With my cross-bow,

I shot the Albatross.

These somber warnings were answered by Leopold Amery, who
opened his rejoinder with the words, "Here endeth the last chapter of
the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah."

In the House of Lords the bill was taken through its various stages by
Lord Zetland (who replaced Hoare as Secretary of State for India in
June 1935), and the final speech for the government was from Halifax
(recently made Secretary of State for War) . The Act received the Royal
Assent on 1 August 1935.

The Act never went into effect completely, and by 1939 the Milner
Group was considering abandoning it in favor of complete self-
government for India. The portions of the Act of 1935 dealing with the
central government fell to the ground when the refusal of the Princes of
the Indian States to accept the Act made a federal solution impossible.
The provincial portion began to function in 1937, but with great dif-
ficulty because of the extremist agitation from the Congress Party. This
party obtained almost half of the seats in the eleven provinces and had
a clear majority in six provinces. The provincial governments, started
in 1937, worked fairly well, and the emergency powers of the central
governments, which continued on the 1919 model, were used only
twice in over two years. When the war began, the Congress Party
ordered its ministries to resign. Since the Congress Party members in
the legislatures would not support non-Congress ministries, the decree
powers of the Provincial Governors had to be used in those provinces
with a Congress majority. In 1945 six out of the eleven provinces had
responsible government.

From 1939 on, constitutional progress in India was blocked by a
double stalemate: (1) the refusal of the Congress Party to cooperate in
government unless the British abandoned India completely, something
which could not be done while the Japanese were invading Burma; and
(2) the growing refusal of the Moslem League to cooperate with the
Congress Party on any basis except partition of India and complete
autonomy for the areas with Moslem majorities. The Milner Group,
and the British government generally, by 1940 had given up all hope of
any successful settlement except complete self-government for India,
but it could not give up to untried hands complete control of defense

224 / The Anglo-American Establishment

policy during the war. At the same time, the Milner Group generally
supported Moslem demands because of its usual emphasis on minority
rights.

During this period the Milner Group remained predominant in
Indian affairs, although the Viceroy (Lord Linlithgow) was not a
member of the Group. The Secretary of State for India, however, was
Leopold Amery for the whole period 1940-1945. A number of efforts
were made to reach agreement with the Congress Party, but the com-
pletely unrealistic attitude of the party's leaders, especially Gandhi,
made this impossible. In 1941, H. V. Hodson, by that time one of the
most important members of the Milner Group, was made Reforms
Commissioner for India. The following year the most important effort
to break the Indian stalemate was made. This was the Cripps Mission,
whose chief adviser was Sir Reginald Coupland, another member of
the inner circle of the Milner Group. As a result of the failure of this
mission and of the refusal of the Indians to believe in the sincerity of
the British (a skepticism that was completely without basis), the situa-
tion dragged on until after the War. The election of 1945, which drove
the Conservative Party from office, also removed the Milner Group
from its positions of influence. The subsequent events, including com-
plete freedom for India and the division of the country into two
Dominions within the British Commonwealth, were controlled by new
hands, but the previous actions of the Milner Group had so committed
the situation that these new hands had no possibility (nor, indeed,
desire) to turn the Indian problem into new paths. There can be little
doubt that with the Milner Group still in control the events of
1945-1948 in respect to India would have differed only in details.

The history of British relations with India in the twentieth century
was disastrous. In this history the Milner Group played a major role.
To be sure, the materials with which they had to work were intractable
and they had inconvenient obstacles at home (like the diehards within
the Conservative Party), but these problems were made worse by the
misconceptions about India and about human beings held by the
Milner Group. The bases on which they built their policy were
fine— indeed, too fine. These bases were idealistic, almost Utopian, to a
degree which made it impossible for them to grow and function and
made it highly likely that forces of ignorance and barbarism would be
released, with results exactly contrary to the desires of the Milner
Group. On the basis of love of liberty, human rights, minority
guarantees, and self-responsibility, the Milner Group took actions that
broke down the lines of external authority in Indian society faster than
any lines of internal self-discipline were being created. It is said that
the road to perdition is paved with good intentions. The road to the
Indian tragedy of 1947-1948 was also paved with good intentions, and

India: 1911-1945 / 225

those paving blocks were manufactured and laid down by the Milner
Group. The same good intentions contributed largely to the dissolution
of the British Empire, the race wars of South Africa, and the unleash-
ing of the horrors of 1939-1945 on the world.

To be sure, in India as elsewhere, the Milner Group ran into bad
luck for which they were not responsible. The chief case of this in India
was the Amritsar Massacre of 1919, which was probably the chief
reason for Gandhi's refusal to cooperate in carrying out the constitu-
tional reforms of that same year. But the Milner Group's policies were
self-inconsistent and were unrealistic. For example, they continually
insisted that the parliamentary system was not fitted to Indian condi-
tions, yet they made no real effort to find a more adaptive political
system, and every time they gave India a further dose of self-
government, it was always another dose of the parliamentary system.
But, clinging to their beliefs, they loaded down this system with special
devices which hampered it from functioning as a parliamentary system
should. The irony of this whole procedure rests in the fact that the
minority of agitators in India who wanted self-government wanted it
on the parliamentary pattern and regarded every special device and
every statement from Britain that it was not adapted to Indian condi-
tions as an indication of the insincerity in the British desire to grant
self-government to India.

A second error arises from the Milner Group's lack of enthusiasm for
democracy. Democracy, as a form of government, involves two parts:
(1) majority rule and (2) minority rights. Because of the Group's lack of
faith in democracy, they held no brief for the first of these but devoted
all their efforts toward achieving the second. The result was to make
the minority uncompromising, at the same time that they diminished
the majority's faith in their own sincerity. In India the result was to
make the Moslem League almost completely obstructionist and make
the Congress Party almost completely suspicious. The whole policy en-
couraged extremists and discouraged moderates. This appears at its
worst in the systems of communal representation and communal elec-
torates established in India by Britain. The Milner Group knew these
were bad, but felt that they were a practical necessity in order to
preserve minority rights. In this they were not only wrong, as proved
by history, but were sacrificing principle to expediency in a way that
can never be permitted by a group whose actions claim to be so largely
dictated by principle. To do this weakens the faith of others in the
group's principles.

The Group made another error in their constant tendency to accept
the outcry of a small minority of Europeanized agitators as the voice of
India. The masses of the Indian people were probably in favor of
British rule, for very practical reasons. The British gave these masses

226 / The Anglo-American Establishment

good government through the Indian Civil Service and other services,
but they made little effort to reach them on any human, intellectual, or
ideological level. The "color line" was drawn — not between British and
Indians but between British and the masses, for the educated upper-
class Indians were treated as equals in the majority of cases. The ex-
istence of the color line did not bother the masses of the people, but
when it hit one of the educated minority, he forgot the more numerous
group of cases where it had not been applied to him, became anti-
British and began to flood the uneducated masses with a deluge of anti-
British propaganda. This could have been avoided to a great extent by
training the British Civil Servants to practice racial toleration toward
all classes, by increasing the proportion of financial expenditure on
elementary education while reducing that on higher education, by
using the increased literacy of the masses of the people to impress on
them the good they derived from British rule and to remove those
grosser superstitions and social customs which justified the color line to
so many English. All of these except the last were in accordance with
Milner Group ideas. The members of the Group objected to the per-
sonal intolerance of the British in India, and regretted the dispropor-
tionate share of educational expenditure which went to higher educa-
tion (see the speech in Parliament of Ormsby-Gore, 11 December
1934), but they continued to educate a small minority, most of whom
became anti-British agitators, and left the masses of the people exposed
to the agitations of that minority. On principle, the Group would not
interfere with the superstitions and grosser social customs of the masses
of the people, on the grounds that to do so would be to interfere with
religious freedom. Yet Britain had abolished suttee, child marriage,
and thuggery, which were also religious in foundation. If the British
could have reduced cow-worship, and especially the number of cows,
to moderate proportions, they would have conferred on India a bless-
ing greater than the abolition of suttee, child marriage, and thuggery
together, would have removed the chief source of animosity between
Hindu and Moslem, and would have raised the standard of living of the
Indian people to a degree that would have more than paid for a system
of elementary education.

If all of these things had been done, the agitation for independence
could have been delayed long enough to build up an electorate capable
of working a parliamentary system. Then the parliamentary system,
which educated Indians wanted, could have been extended to them
without the undemocratic devices and animadversions against it which
usually accompanied any effort to introduce it on the part of the
British.

12

Foreign Policy,
1919-1940

Any effort to write an account of the influence exercised by the Milner
Group in foreign affairs in the period between the two World Wars
would require a complete rewriting of the history of that period. This
cannot be done within the limits of a single chapter, and it will not be
attempted. Instead, an effort will be made to point out the chief ideas
of the Milner Group in this field, the chief methods by which they were
able to make those ideas prevail, and a few significant examples of how
these methods worked in practice.

The political power of the Milner Group in the period 1919-1939
grew quite steadily. It can be measured by the number of ministerial
portfolios held by members of the Group. In the first period,
1919-1924, they generally held about one-fifth of the Cabinet posts.
For example, the Cabinet that resigned in January 1924 had nineteen
members; four were of the Milner Group, only one from the inner cir-
cle. These four were Leopold Amery, Edward Wood, Samuel Hoare,
and Lord Robert Cecil. In addition, in the same period other members
of the Group were in the government in one position or another.
Among these were Milner, Austen Chamberlain, H. A. L. Fisher, Lord
Ernie, Lord Astor, Sir Arthur Steel-Maitland, and W. G. A. Ormsby-
Gore. Also, relatives of these, such as Lord Onslow (brother-in-law of
Lord Halifax), Captain Lane-Fox (brother-in-law of Lord Halifax),
and Lord Greenwood (brother-in-law of Amery), were in the govern-
ment.

In this period the influence of the Milner Group was exercised in two
vitally significant political acts. In the first case, the Milner Group ap-
pears to have played an important role behind the scenes in persuading
the King to ask Baldwin rather than Curzon to be Prime Minister in
1923. Harold Nicolson, in Curzon: The Last Phase (1934), says that
Balfour, Amery, and Walter Long intervened with the King to oppose
Curzon, and "the cumulative effect of these representations was to
reverse the previous decision." Of the three names mentioned by

227

228 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Nicolson, two were of the Cecil Bloc, while the third was Milner's
closest associate. If Amery did intervene, he undoubtedly did so as the
representative of Milner, and if Milner opposed Curzon to this extent
through Amery, he was in a position to bring other powerful influences
to bear on His Majesty through Lord Esher as well as through Brand's
brother, Viscount Hampden, a lord-in-waiting to the King, or more
directly through Milner's son-in-law, Captain Alexander Hardinge, a
private secretary to the King. In any case, Milner exercised a very
powerful influence on Baldwin during the period of his first govern-
ment, and it was on Milner's advice that Baldwin waged the General
Election of 1924 on the issue of protection. The election manifesto
issued by the party and advocating a tariff was written by Milner in
consultation with Arthur Steel-Maitland.

In the period 1924-1929 the Milner Group usually held about a third
of the seats in the Cabinet (seven out of twenty-one in the government
formed in November 1924). These proportions were also held in the
period 1935-1940, with a somewhat smaller ratio in the period
1931-1935. In the Cabinet that was formed in the fall of 1931, the
Milner Group exercised a peculiar influence. The Labour Party under
Ramsay MacDonald was in office with a minority government from
1929 to September 1931. Toward the end of this period, the Labour
government experienced increasing difficulty because the deflationary
policy of the Bank of England and the outflow of gold from the country
were simultaneously intensifying the depression, increasing unemploy-
ment and public discontent, and jeopardizing the gold standard. In
fact, the Bank of England's policy made it almost impossible for the
Labour Party to govern. Without informing his Cabinet, Ramsay
MacDonald entered upon negotiations with Baldwin and King George,
as a result of which MacDonald became Prime Minister of a new
government, supported by Conservative votes in Parliament. The
obvious purpose of this intrigue was to split the Labour Party and place
the administration back in Conservative hands.

In this intrigue the Milner Group apparently played an important, if
secret, role. That they were in a position to play such a role is clear. We
have mentioned the pressure which the bankers were putting on the
Labour government in the period 1929-1931. The Milner Group were
clearly in a position to influence this pressure. E. R. Peacock (Parkin's
old associate) was at the time a director of the Bank of England and a
director of Baring Brothers; Robert Brand, Thomas Henry Brand, and
Adam Marris (son of Sir William Marris) were all at Lazard and
Brothers; Robert Brand was also a director of Lloyd's Bank; Lord
Selborne was a director of Lloyd's Bank; Lord Lugard was a director of
Barclay's Bank; Major Astor was a director of Hambros Bank; and
Lord Goschen was a director of the Westminster Bank.

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 229

We have already indicated the ability of the Milner Group to in-
fluence the King in respect to the choice of Baldwin as Prime Minister
in 1923. By 1931 this power was even greater. Thus the Milner Group
was in a position to play a role in the intrigue of 1931. That they may
have done so is to be found in the fact that two of the important figures
in this intrigue within the Labour Party were ever after closely
associated with the Milner Group. These two were Malcolm Mac-
Donald and Godfrey Elton.

Malcolm MacDonald, son and intimate associate of Ramsay Mac-
Donald, clearly played an important role in the intrigue of 1931. He
was rewarded with a position in the new government and has never
been out of office since. These offices included Parliamentary Under
Secretary in the Dominions Office (1931-1935), Secretary of State for
the Dominions (1935-1938 and 1938-1939), Secretary of State for the
Colonies (1935-and 1938-1940), Minister of Health (1940-1941),
United Kingdom High Commissioner in Canada (1941-1946),
Governor-General of Malaya and British South-East Asia (since 1946).
Since all of these offices but one (Minister of Health) were traditionally
in the sphere of the Milner Group, and since Malcolm MacDonald
during this period was closely associated with the Group in its other ac-
tivities, such as Chatham House and the unofficial British Com-
monwealth relations conferences, Malcolm MacDonald should prob-
ably be regarded as a member of the Group from about 1932 onward.

Godfrey Elton (Lord Elton since 1934), of Rugby and Balliol, was a
Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, from 1919, as well as lecturer on
Modern History at Oxford. In this role Elton came in contact with
Malcolm MacDonald, who was an undergraduate at Queen's in the
period 1920-1925. Through this connection, Elton ran for Parliament
on the Labour Party ticket in 1924 and again in 1929, both times
without success. He was more successful in establishing himself as an
intellectual leader of the Labour Party, capping this by publishing in
1931 a study of the early days of the party. As a close associate of the
MacDonald family, he supported the intrigue of 1931 and played a
part in it. For this he was expelled from the party and became
honorary political secretary of the new National Labour Committee
and editor of its News-Letter (1932-1938). He was made a baron in
1934, was on the Ullswater Committee on the Future of Broadcasting
the following year, and in 1939 succeeded Lord Lothian as Secretary to
the Rhodes Trustees. By his close association with the MacDonald
family, he became the obvious choice to write the "official" life of J. R.
(Ramsay) MacDonald, the first volume of which was published in
1939. In 1945 he published a history of the British Empire called
Imperial Commonwealth.

After the election of 1935, the Milner Group took a substantial part

230 / The Anglo-American Establishment

in the government, with possession of seven places in a Cabinet of
twenty-one seats. By the beginning of September of 1939, they had
only five out of twenty-three, the decrease being caused, as we shall
see, by the attrition within the Group on the question of appeasement.
In the War Cabinet formed at the outbreak of the war, they had four
out of nine seats. In this whole period from 1935 to 1940, the following
members of the Group were associated with the government as officers
of state: Halifax, Simon, Malcolm MacDonald, Zetland, Ormsby-
Gore, Hoare, Somervell, Lothian, Hankey, Grigg, Salter, and Amery.
It would appear that the Milner Group increased its influence on the
government until about 1938. We have already indicated the great
power which they exercised in the period 1915-1919. This influence,
while great, was neither decisive nor preponderant. At the time, the
Milner Group was sharing influence with at least two other groups and
was, perhaps, the least powerful of the three. It surely was less power-
ful than the Cecil Bloc, even as late as 1929, and was less powerful,
perhaps, than the rather isolated figure of Lloyd George as late as
1922. These relative degrees of power on the whole do not amount to
very much, because the three that we have mentioned generally agreed
on policy. When they disagreed, the views of the Milner Group did not
usually prevail. There were two reasons for this. Both the Cecil Bloc
and Lloyd George were susceptible to pressure from the British elec-
torate and from the allies of Britain. The Milner Group, as a
nonelected group, could afford to be disdainful of the British electorate
and of French opinion, but the persons actually responsible for the
government, like Lloyd George, Balfour, and others, could not be so
casual. As a consequence, the Milner Group were bitterly disappointed
over the peace treaty with Germany and over the Covenant of the
League of Nations. This may seem impossible when we realize how
much the Group contributed to both of these. For they did contribute a
great deal, chiefly because of the fact that the responsible statesmen
generally accepted the opinion of the experts on the terms of the treaty,
especially the territorial terms. There is only one case where the
delegates overruled a committee of experts that was unanimous, and
that was the case of the Polish Corridor, where the experts were more
severe with Germany than the final agreement. The experts, thus,
were of very great importance, and among the experts the Milner
Group had an important place, as we have seen. It would thus seem
that the Milner Group's disappointment with the peace settlement was
largely criticism of their own handiwork. To a considerable extent this
is true. The explanation lies in the fact that much of what they did as
experts was done on instructions from the responsible delegates and the
fact that the Group ever after had a tendency to focus their eyes on the
few blemishes of the settlement, to the complete neglect of the much

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 231

larger body of acceptable decisions. Except for this, the Group could
have no justification for their dissatisfaction except as self-criticism.
When the original draft of the Treaty of Versailles was presented to the
Germans on 7 May 1919, the defeated delegates were aghast at its
severity. They drew up a detailed criticism of 443 pages. The answer to
this protest, making a few minor changes in the treaty but allowing the
major provisions to stand, was drafted by an interallied committee of
five, of which Philip Kerr was the British member. The changes that
were made as concessions to the Germans were made under pressure
from Lloyd George, who was himself under pressure from the Milner
Group. This appears clearly from the minutes of the Council of Four at
the Peace Conference. The first organized drive to revise the draft of
the treaty in the direction of leniency was made by Lloyd George at a
meeting of the Council of Four on 2 June 1919. The Prime Minister said
he had been consulting with his delegation and with the Cabinet. He
specifically mentioned George Barnes ("the only Labour representative
in his Cabinet") , the South African delegation (who "were also refusing
to sign the present Treaty"), Mr. Fisher ("whose views carried great
weight"), Austen Chamberlain, Lord Robert Cecil, and both the
Archbishops. Except for Barnes and the Archbishops, all of these were
close to the Milner Group. The reference to H. A. L. Fisher is especially
significant, for Fisher's views could "carry great weight" only insofar as
he was a member of the Milner Group. The reference to the South
African delegation meant Smuts, for Botha was prepared to sign, no
matter what he felt about the treaty, in order to win for his country of-
ficial recognition as a Dominion of equal status with Britain. Smuts, on
the other hand, refused to sign from the beginning and, as late as 23
June 1919, reiterated his refusal (according to Mrs. Millen's biography
of Smuts) .

Lloyd George's objections to the treaty as presented in the Council of
Four on 2 June were those which soon became the trademark of the
Milner Group. In addition to criticisms of the territorial clauses on the
Polish frontier and a demand for a plebiscite in Upper Silesia, the chief
objections were aimed at reparations and the occupation of the
Rhineland. On the former point, Lloyd George's advisers "thought that
more had been asked for than Germany could pay." On the latter
point, which "was the main British concern," his advisers were insis-
tent. "They urged that when the German Army was reduced to a
strength of 100,000 men it was ridiculous to maintain an army of oc-
cupation of 200,000 men on the Rhine. They represented that it was
only a method of quartering the French Army on Germany and making
Germany pay the cost. It had been pointed out that Germany would
not constitute a danger to France for 30 years or even 50 years; cer-
tainly not in 15 years. . . . The advice of the British military authorities

232 / The Anglo-American Establishment

was that two years was the utmost limit of time for the occupation."

To these complaints, Clemenceau had replied that "in England the
view seemed to prevail that the easiest way to finish the war was by
making concessions. In France the contrary view was held that it was
best to act firmly. The French people, unfortunately, knew the Ger-
mans very intimately, and they believed that the more concessions we
made, the more the Germans would demand. ... He recognized that
Germany was not an immediate menace to France. But Germany
would sign the Treaty with every intention of not carrying it out. Eva-
sions would be made first on one point and then on another. The whole
Treaty would go by the board if there were not some guarantees such as
were provided by the occupation." 1

Under such circumstances as these, it seems rather graceless for the
Milner Group to have started at once, as it did, a campaign of
recrimination against the treaty. Philip Kerr was from 1905 to his
death in 1940 at the very center of the Milner Group. His violent Ger-
manophobia in 1908-1918, and his evident familiarity with the charac-
ter of the Germans and with the kind of treaty which they would have
imposed on Britain had the roles been reversed, should have made the
Treaty of Versailles very acceptable to him and his companions, or, if
not, unacceptable on grounds of excessive leniency. Instead, Kerr,
Brand, Curtis, and the whole inner core of the Milner Group began a
campaign to undermine the treaty, the League of Nations, and the
whole peace settlement. Those who are familiar with the activities of
the "Cliveden Set" in the 1930s have generally felt that the appease-
ment policy associated with that group was a manifestation of the
period after 1934 only. This is quite mistaken. The Milner Group,
which was the reality behind the phantom-like Cliveden Set, began
their program of appeasement and revision of the settlement as early as
1919. Why did they do this?

To answer this question, we must fall back on the statements of the
members of the Group, general impressions of their psychological
outlook, and even a certain amount of conjecture. The best statement
of what the Group found objectionable in the peace of 1919 will be
found in a brilliant book of Zimmern's called Europe in Convalescence
(1922). More concrete criticism, especially in regard to the Covenant of
the League, will be found in The Round Table. And the general mental
outlook of the Group in 1919 will be found in Harold Nicolson's famous
book Peace-Making. Nicolson, although on close personal relationships
with most of the inner core of the Milner Group, was not a member of
the Group himself, but his psychology in 1918-1920 was similar to that
of the members of the inner core.

In general, the members of this inner core took the propagandist
slogans of 1914-1918 as a truthful picture of the situation. I have in-

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 233

dicated how the Group had worked out a theory of history that saw the
whole past in terms of a long struggle between the forces of evil and
the forces of righteousness. The latter they defined at various times as
"the rule of law" (a la Dicey), as "the subordination of each to the
welfare of all," as "democracy," etc. They accepted Wilson's identifica-
tion of his war aims with his war slogans ("a world safe for
democracy," "a war to end wars," "a war to end Prussianism," "self-
determination," etc.) as meaning what they meant by "the rule of
law." They accepted his Fourteen Points (except "freedom of the seas")
as implementation of these aims. Moreover, the Milner Group, and ap-
parently Wilson, made an assumption which had a valid basis but
which could be very dangerous if carried out carelessly. This was the
assumption that the Germans were divided into two groups, "Prussian
autocrats" and "good Germans." They assumed that, if the former
group were removed from positions of power and influence, and
magnanimous concessions were made to the latter, Germany could be
won over on a permanent basis from "Asiatic despotism" to "Western
civilization." In its main outlines, the thesis was valid. But difficulties
were numerous.

In the first place, it is not possible to distinguish between "good"
Germans and "bad" Germans by any objective criterion. The distinc-
tion certainly could not be based on who was in public office in
1914-1918. In fact, the overwhelming mass of Germans — almost all the
middle classes, except a few intellectuals and very religious persons; a
considerable portion of the aristocratic class (at least half); and certain
segments of the working class (about one-fifth) — were "bad" Germans
in the sense in which the Milner Group used that expression. In their
saner moments, the Group knew this. In December 1918, Curtis wrote
in The Round Table on this subject as follows: "No one class, but the
nation itself was involved in the sin. There were Socialists who licked
their lips over Brest-Litovsk. All but a mere remnant, and those largely
in prison or exile, accepted or justified the creed of despotism so long as
it promised them the mastery of the world. The German People con-
sented to be slaves in their own house as the price of enslaving
mankind." If these words had been printed and posted on the walls of
All Souls, of Chatham House, of New College, of The Times office in
Printing House Square, and of The Round Table office at 175 Picca-
dilly, there need never have been a Second World War with Germany.
But these words were not remembered by the Group. Instead, they
assumed that the "bad" Germans were the small group that was re-
moved from office in 1918 with the Kaiser. They did not see that the
Kaiser was merely a kind of facade for four other groups: The Prussian
Officers' Corps, the Junker landlords, the governmental bureaucracy
(especially the administrators of police and justice), and the great in-

234 / The Anglo-American Establishment

dustrialists. They did not see that these four had been able to save
themselves in 1918 by jettisoning the Kaiser, who had become a lia-
bility. They did not see that these four were left in their positions of in-
fluence, with their power practically intact — indeed, in many ways
with their power greater than ever, since the new "democratic" politi-
cians like Ebert, Scheidemann, and Noske were much more subservient
to the four groups than the old imperial authorities had ever been.
General Groner gave orders to Ebert over his direct telephone line
from Kassel in a tone and with a directness that he would never have
used to an imperial chancellor. In a word, there was no revolution in
Germany in 1918. The Milner Group did not see this, because they did
not want to see it. Not that they were not warned. Brigadier General
John H. Morgan, who was almost a member of the Group and who was
on the Interallied Military Commission of Control in Germany in
1919-1923, persistently warned the government and the Group of the
continued existence and growing power of the German Officers' Corps
and of the unreformed character of the German people. As a graduate
of Balliol and the University of Berlin (1897-1905), a leader-writer on
The Manchester Guardian (1904-1905), a Liberal candidate for Parlia-
ment with Amery in 1910, an assistant adjutant general with the
military section of the British delegation to the Peace Conference of
1919, the British member on the Prisoners of War Commission (1919),
legal editor of The Encyclopedia Britannica (14th edition), contributor
to The Times, reader in constitutional law to the Inns of Court
(1926-1936), Professor of Constitutional Law at the University of Lon-
don, Rhodes Lecturer at London (1927-1932), counsel to the Indian
Chamber of Princes (1934-1937), counsel to the Indian State of
Gwalior, Tagore Professor at Calcutta (1939) — as all of these things,
and thus close to many members of the Group, General Morgan issued
warnings about Germany that should have been heeded by the Group.
They were not. No more attention was paid to them than was paid to
the somewhat similar warnings coming from Professor Zimmern. And
the general, with less courage than the professor, or perhaps with more
of that peculiar group loyalty which pervades his social class in
England, kept his warnings secret and private for years. Only in Oc-
tober 1924 did he come out in public with an article in the Quarterly
Review on the subject, and only in 1945 did he find a wider platform in
a published book (Assize of Arms) , but in neither did he name the per-
sons who were suppressing the warnings in his official reports from the
Military Commission.

In a similar fashion, the Milner Group knew that the industrialists,
the Junkers, the police, and the judges were cooperating with the reac-
tionaries to suppress all democratic and enlightened elements in Ger-

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 235

many and to help all the forces of "despotism" and "sin" (to use Curtis 's
words). The Group refused to recognize these facts. For this, there
were two reasons. One, for which Brand was chiefly responsible, was
based on certain economic assumptions. Among these, the chief was
the belief that "disorder" and social unrest could be avoided only if
prosperity were restored to Germany as soon as possible. By "disorder,"
Brand meant such activities as were associated with Trotsky in Russia,
Bela Kun in Hungary, and the Spartacists or Kurt Eisner in Germany.
To Brand, as an orthodox international banker, prosperity could be ob-
tained only by an economic system under the control of the old estab-
lished industrialists and bankers. This is perfectly clear from Brand's
articles in The Round Table, reprinted in his book, War and National
Finance (1921). Moreover, Brand felt confident that the old economic
groups could reestablish prosperity quickly only if they were given con-
cessions in respect to Germany's international financial position by
lightening the weight of reparations on Germany and by advancing
credit to Germany, chiefly from the United States. This point of view
was not Brand's alone. It dominated the minds of all international
bankers from Thomas Lamont to Montague Norman and from 1918 to
at least 1931. The importance of Brand, from out point of view, lies in
the fact that, as "the economic expert" of the Milner Group and one of
the leaders of the Group, he brought this point of view into the Group
and was able to direct the great influence of the Group in this direc-
tion. 2

Blindness to the real situation in Germany was also encouraged from
another point of view. This was associated with Philip Kerr. Roughly,
this point of view advocated a British foreign policy based on the old
balance-of- power system. Under that old system, which Britain had
followed since 1500, Britain should support the second strongest power
on the Continent against the strongest power, to prevent the latter
from obtaining supremacy on the Continent. For one brief moment in
1918, the Group toyed with the idea of abandoning this traditional
policy; for one brief moment they felt that if Europe were given self-
determination and parliamentary governments, Britain could permit
some kind of federated or at least cooperative Europe without danger
to Britain. The moment soon passed. The League of Nations, which
had been regarded by the Group as the seed whence a united Europe
might grow, became nothing more than a propaganda machine, as
soon as the Group resumed its belief in the balance of power. Curtis,
who in December 1918 wrote in The Round Table: "That the balance
of power has outlived its time by a century and that the world has re-
mained a prey to wars, was due to the unnatural alienation of the
British and American Commonwealths" — Curtis, who wrote this in

236 / The Anglo-American Establishment

1918, four years later (9 January 1923) vigorously defended the idea of
balance of power against the criticism of Professor A. F. Pollard at a
meeting of the RIIA.

This change in point of view was based on several factors. In the first
place, the Group, by their practical experience at Paris in 1919, found
that it was not possible to apply either self-determination or the
parliamentary form of government to Europe. As a result of this ex-
perience, they listened with more respect to the Cecil Bloc, which
always insisted that these, especially the latter, were intimately
associated with the British outlook, way of life, and social traditions,
and were not articles of export. This issue was always the chief bone of
contention between the Group and the Bloc in regard to India. In
India, where their own influence as pedagogues was important, the
Group did not accept the Bloc's arguments completely, but in Europe,
where the Group's influence was remote and indirect, the Group was
more receptive.

In the second place, the Group at Paris became alienated from the
French because of the latter 's insistence on force as the chief basis of
social and political life, especially the French insistence on a perma-
nent mobilization of force to keep Germany down and on an interna-
tional police force with autonomous power as a part of the League of
Nations. The Group, although they frequently quoted Admiral
Mahan's kind words about force in social life, did not really like force
and shrank from its use, believing, as might be expected from their
Christian background, that force could not avail against moral issues,
that force corrupts those who use it, and that the real basis of social and
political life was custom and tradition. At Paris the Group found that
they were living in a different world from the French. They suddenly
saw not only that they did not have the same outlook as their former
allies, but that these allies embraced the "despotic" and "militaristic"
outlook against which the late war had been waged. At once, the
Group began to think that the influence which they had been mobil-
izing against Prussian despotism since 1907 could best be mobilized,
now that Prussianism was dead, against French militarism and
Bolshevism. And what better ally against these two enemies in the West
and the East than the newly baptized Germany? Thus, almost without
realizing it, the Group fell back into the old balance-of-power pattern.
Their aim became the double one of keeping Germany in the fold of re-
deemed sinners by concessions, and of using this revived and purified
Germany against Russia and France. 3

In the third place, the Group in 1918 had been willing to toy with
the idea of an integrated Europe because, in 1918, they believed that a
permanent system of cooperation between Britain and the United
States was a possible outcome of the war. This was the lifelong dream

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 237

of Rhodes, of Milner, of Lothian, of Curtis. For that they would have
sacrificed anything within reason. When it became clear in 1920 that
the United States had no intention of underwriting Britain and instead
would revert to her prewar isolationism, the bitterness of disappoint-
ment in the Milner Group were beyond bounds. Forever after, they
blamed the evils of Europe, the double-dealing of British policy, and
the whole train of errors from 1919 to 1940 on the American reversion
to isolationism. It should be clearly understood that by American
reversion to isolationism the Milner Group did not mean the American
rejection of the League of Nations. Frequently they said that they did
mean this, that the disaster of 1939-1940 became inevitable when the
Senate rejected the League of Nations in 1920. This is completely un-
true, both as a statement of historical fact and as a statement of the
Group's attitude toward that rejection at the time. As we shall see in a
moment, the Group approved of the Senate's rejection of the League of
Nations, because the reasons for that rejection agreed completely with
the Group's own opinion about the League. The only change in the
Group's opinion, as a result of the Senate's rejection of the League, oc-
curred in respect to the Group's opinion regarding the League itself.
Previously they had disliked the League; now they hated it — except as
a propaganda agency. The proofs of these statements will appear in a
moment.

The change in the Group's attitude toward Germany began even
before the war ended. We have indicated how the Group rallied to give
a public testimonial of faith in Lord Milner in October 1918, when he
became the target of public criticism because of what was regarded by
the public as a conciliatory speech toward Germany. The Group ob-
jected violently to the anti-German tone in which Lloyd George con-
ducted his electoral campaign in the "khaki election" of December
1918. The Round Table in March 1919 spoke of Lloyd George and "the
odious character of his election campaign." Zimmern, after a
devastating criticism of Lloyd George's conduct in the election, wrote:
"He erred, not, like the English people, out of ignorance but deliber-
ately, out of cowardice and lack of faith." In the preface to the same
volume (Europe in Convalescence) he wrote: "Since December, 1918,
when we elected a Parliament pledged to violate a solemn agreement
made but five weeks earlier, we stand shamed, dishonoured, and,
above all, distrusted before mankind." The agreement to which
Zimmern referred was the so-called Pre-Armistice Agreement of 5
November 1918, made with the Germans, by which, if they accepted
an armistice, the Allies agreed to make peace on the basis of the Four-
teen Points. It was the thesis of the Milner Group that the election of
1918 and the Treaty of Versailles as finally signed violated this Pre-
Armistice Agreement. As a result, the Group at once embarked on its

238 / The Anglo-American Establishment

campaign for revision of the treaty, a campaign whose first aim, ap-
parently, was to create a guilty conscience in regard to the treaty in
Britain and the United States. Zimmern's book, Brand's book of the
previous year, and all the articles of The Round Table were but am-
munition in this campaign. However, Zimmern had no illusions about
the Germans, and his attack on the treaty was based solely on the need
to redeem British honor. As soon as it became clear to him that the
Group was going beyond this motive and was trying to give concessions
to the Germans without any attempt to purge Germany of its vicious
elements and without any guarantee that those concessions would not
be used against everything the Group held dear, he left the inner circle
of the Group and moved to the second circle. He was not convinced
that Germany could be redeemed by concessions made blindly to Ger-
many as a whole, or that Germany should be built up against France
and Russia. He made his position clear in a brilliant and courageous
speech at Oxford in May 1925, a speech in which he denounced the
steady sabotage of the League of Nations. It is not an accident that the
most intelligent member of the Group was the first member to break
publicly with the policy of appeasement.

The Milner Group thus regarded the Treaty of Versailles as too
severe, as purely temporary, and as subject to revision almost at once.
When The Round Table examined the treaty in its issue of June 1919, it
said, in substance: "The punishment of Germany was just, for no one
can believe in any sudden change of heart in that country, but the
treaty is too severe. The spirit of the Pre-Armistice Commitments was
violated, and, in detail after detail, Germany was treated unjustly,
although there is broad justice in the settlement as a whole. Specifically
the reparations are too severe, and Germany's neighbors should have
been forced to disarm also, as promised in Wilson's Fourth Point. No
demand should have been made for William II as a war criminal. If he
is a menace, he should be put on an island without trial, like Napoleon.
Our policy must be magnanimous, for our war was with the German
government, not with the German people." Even earlier, in December
1918, The Round Table said: "It would seem desirable that the treaties
should not be long term, still less perpetual, instruments. Perpetual
treaties are indeed a lien upon national sovereignty and a standing con-
tradiction of the principle of the democratic control of foreign policy.
... It would establish a salutory precedent if the network of treaties
signed as a result of the war were valid for a period of ten years only."
In March 1920, The Round Table said: "Like the Peace Conference,
the Covenant of the League of Nations aimed too high and too far. Six
months ago we looked to it to furnish the means for peaceful revision of
the terms of the peace, where revision might be required. Now we have
to realize that national sentiment sets closer limits to international ac-

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 239

tion than we were willing then to recognize." The same article then
goes on to speak of the rejection of the treaty by the United States
Senate. It defends this action and criticizes Wilson severely, saying:
"The truth of the matter is that the American Senate has expressed the
real sentiment of all nations with hard-headed truthfulness. . . . The
Senate has put into words what has already been demonstrated in
Europe by the logic of events — namely that the Peace of Versailles at-
tempted too much, and the Covenant which guarantees it implies a
capacity for united action between the Allies which the facts do not
warrant. The whole Treaty was, in fact, framed to meet the same im-
practical desire which we have already noted in the reparation
terms — the desire to mete out ideal justice and to build an ideal
world."

Nowhere is the whole point of view of the Milner Group better stated
than in a speech of General Smuts to the South African Luncheon Club
in London, 23 October 1923. After violent criticism of the reparations
as too large and an attack on the French efforts to enforce these clauses,
he called for a meeting "of principals" to settle the problem. He then
pointed out that a continuation of existing methods would lead to the
danger of German disintegration, "a first-class and irreparable
disaster. ... It would mean immediate economic chaos, and it would
open up the possibility of future political dangers to which I need not
here refer. Germany is both economically and politically necessary to
Central Europe." He advocated applying to Germany "the benevolent
policy which this country adopted toward France after the Napoleonic
War. . . . And if, as I hope she will do, Germany makes a last appeal
... I trust this great Empire will not hesitate for a moment to respond
to that appeal and to use all its diplomatic power and influence to sup-
port her, and to prevent a calamity which would be infinitely more
dangerous to Europe and the world than was the downfall of Russia six
or seven years ago." Having thus lined Britain up in diplomatic opposi-
tion to France, Smuts continued with advice against applying gener-
osity to the latter country on the question of French war debts, warn-
ing that this would only encourage "French militarism."

Do not let us from mistaken motives of generosity lend our aid to the
further militarization of the European continent. People here are already
beginning to be seriously alarmed about French armaments on land and
in the air. In addition to these armaments, the French government have
also lent large sums to the smaller European States around Germany,
mainly with a view to feeding their ravenous military appetites. There is a
serious danger lest a policy of excessive generosity on our part, or on the
part of America, may simply have the effect of enabling France still more
effectively to subsidize and foster militarism on the Continent. ... If
things continue on the present lines, this country may soon have to start
rearming herself in sheer self-defence.

240 / The Anglo-American Establishment

This speech of Smuts covers so adequately the point of view of the
Milner Group in the early period of appeasement that no further
quotations are necessary. No real change occurred in the point of view
of the Group from 1920 to 1938, not even as a result of the death of
democratic hopes in Germany at the hands of the Nazis. From Smuts's
speech of October 1923 before the South African Luncheon Club to
Smuts's speech of November 1934 before the RIIA, much water flowed
in the river of international affairs, but the ideas of the Milner Group
remained rigid and, it may be added, erroneous. Just as the speech of
1923 may be taken as the culmination of the revisionist sentiment of the
Group in the first five years of peace, so the speech of 1934 may be
taken as the initiation of the appeasement sentiment of the Group in
the last five years of peace. The speeches could almost be interchanged.
We may call one revisionist and the other appeasing, but the point of
view, the purpose, the method is the same. These speeches will be men-
tioned again later.

The aim of the Milner Group through the period from 1920 to 1938
was the same: to maintain the balance of power in Europe by building
up Germany against France and Russia; to increase Britain's weight in
that balance by aligning with her the Dominions and the United States;
to refuse any commitments (especially any commitments through the
League of Nations, and above all any commitments to aid France)
beyond those existing in 1919; to keep British freedom of action; to
drive Germany eastward against Russia if either or both of these two
powers became a threat to the peace of Western Europe.

The sabotage of the peace settlement by the Milner Group can be
seen best in respect to reparations and the League of Nations. In regard
to the former, their argument appeared on two fronts: in the first
place, the reparations were too large because they were a dishonorable
violation of the Pre-Armistice Agreement; and, in the second place,
any demand for immediate or heavy payments in reparation would
ruin Germany's international credit and her domestic economic
system, to the jeopardy of all reparation payments immediately and of
all social order in Central Europe in the long run.

The argument against reparations as a violation of the Pre-Armistice
Agreement can be found in the volumes of Zimmern and Brand already
mentioned. Both concentrated their objections on the inclusion of pen-
sion payments by the victors to their own soldiers in the total repara-
tion bill given to the Germans. This was, of course, an obvious viola-
tion of the Pre-Armistice Agreement, which bound the Germans to pay
only for damage to civilian property. Strangely enough, it was a
member of the Group, Jan Smuts, who was responsible for the inclu-
sion of the objectionable items, although he put them in not as a
member of the Group, but as a South African politician. This fact

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 241

alone should have prevented him from making his speech of October
1923. However, love of consistency has never prevented Smuts from
making a speech.

From 1921 onward, the Milner Group and the British government (if
the two policies are distinguishable) did all they could to lighten the
reparations burden on Germany and to prevent France from using
force to collect reparations. The influence of the Milner Group on the
government in this field may perhaps be indicated by the identity of
the two policies. It might also be pointed out that a member of the
Group, Arthur (now Sir Arthur) Salter, was general secretary of the
Reparations Commission from 1920 to 1922. Brand was financial ad-
viser to the chairman of the Supreme Economic Council (Lord Robert
Cecil) in 1919; he was vice-president of the Brussels Conference of
1920; and he was the financial representative of South Africa at the
Genoa Conference of 1922 (named by Smuts) . He was also a member of
the International Committee of Experts on the Stabilization of the Ger-
man Mark in 1922. Hankey was British secretary at the Genoa Con-
ference of 1922 and at the London Reparations Conference of 1924. He
was general secretary of the Hague Conference of 1929-1930 (which
worked out the detailed application of the Young Plan) and of the
Lausanne Conference (which ended reparations).

On the two great plans to settle the reparations problem, the Dawes
Plan of 1924 and the Young Plan of 1929, the chief influence was that
of J. P. Morgan and Company, but the Milner Group had half of the
British delegation on the former committee. The British members of
the Dawes Committee were two in number: Sir Robert Molesworth
(now Lord) Kindersley, and Sir Josiah (later Lord) Stamp. The former
was chairman of the board of directors of Lazard Brothers and Com-
pany. Of this firm, Brand was a partner and managing director for
many years. The instigation for the formation of this committee came
chiefly from the parliamentary agitations of H. A. L. Fisher and John
Simon in the early months of 1923.

The Milner Group was outraged at the efforts of France to compel
Germany to pay reparations. Indeed, they were outraged at the whole
policy of France: reparations, the French alliances in Eastern Europe,
the disarmament of Germany, French "militarism," the French desire
for an alliance with Britain, and the French desire for a long-term oc-
cupation of the Rhineland. These six things were listed in The Round
Table of March 1922 as "the Poincare system." The journal then con-
tinued: "The Poincare system, indeed, is hopeless. It leads inevitably to
fresh war, for it is incredible that a powerful and spirited people like
the Germans will be content to remain forever meekly obeying every
flourish of Marshal Foch's sword." Earlier, the reader was informed:
"The system is impracticable. It assumes that the interests of Poland

242 / The Anglo-American Establishment

and the Little Entente are the same as those of France. ... It forgets
that the peoples of Europe cannot balance their budgets and recover
prosperity unless they cut down their expenditures on armaments to a
minimum. ... It ignores the certainty that British opinion can no more
tolerate a French military hegemony over Europe than it could a Ger-
man or Napoleonic, with its menace to freedom and democracy
everywhere."

When the French, in January 1923, occupied the Ruhr in an effort to
force Germany to pay reparations, the rage of the Milner Group almost
broke its bounds. In private, and in the anonymity of The Round
Table, they threatened economic and diplomatic retaliation, although
in public speeches, such as in Parliament, they were more cautious.
However, even in public Fisher, Simon, and Smuts permitted their real
feelings to become visible.

In the March 1923 issue The Round Table suggested that the repara-
tions crisis and the Ruhr stalemate could be met by the appointment of
a committee of experts (including Americans) to report on Germany's
capacity to pay reparations. It announced that H. A. L. Fisher would
move an amendment to the address to this effect in Parliament. This
amendment was moved by Fisher on 19 February 1923, before The
Round Table in question appeared, in the following terms:

That this House do humbly represent to your Majesty that, inasmuch as
the future peace of Europe cannot be safeguarded nor the recovery of rep-
arations be promoted by the operations of the French and Belgian
Governments in the Ruhr, it is urgently necessary to seek effective secu-
rities against aggression by international guarantees under the League of
Nations, and to invite the Council of the League without delay to appoint
a Commission of Experts to report upon the capacity of Germany to pay
reparations and upon the best method of effecting such payments, and
that, in view of the recent indication of willingness on the part of the
Government of the United States of America to participate in a Con-
ference to this end, the British representatives on the Council of the
League should be instructed to urge that an invitation be extended to the
American government to appoint experts to serve upon the Commission.

This motion had, of course, no chance whatever of passing, and
Fisher had no expectation that it would. It was merely a propaganda
device. Two statements in it are noteworthy. One was the emphasis on
American participation, which was to be expected from the Milner
Group. But more important than this was the thinly veiled threat to
France contained in the words "it is urgently necessary to seek effective
securities against aggression by international guarantees." This clause
referred to French aggression and was the seed from which emerged,
three years later, the Locarno Pacts. There were also some significant
phrases, or slips of the tongue, in the speech which Fisher made in sup-

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 243

port of his motion. For example, he used the word "we" in a way that
apparently referred to the Milner Group; and he spoke of "liquidation
of the penal clauses of the Treaty of Versailles" as if that were the pur-
pose of the committee he was seeking. He said: "We are anxious to get
the amount of the reparation payment settled by an impartial tribunal.
We propose that it should be remitted to the League of Nations. . . .
But I admit that I have always had a considerable hesitation in asking
the League of Nations to undertake the liquidation of the penal clauses
of the Treaty of Versailles. ... It is an integral part of this Amendment
that the Americans should be brought in." Lord Robert Cecil objected
to the amendment on the ground that its passage would constitute a
censure of the government and force it to resign. John Simon then
spoke in support of the motion. He said that France would never agree
to any reparations figure, because she did not want the reparations
clauses fulfilled, since that would make necessary the evacuation of the
Rhineland. France went into the Ruhr, he said, not to collect repara-
tions, but to cripple Germany; France was spending immense sums of
money on military occupation and armaments but still was failing to
pay either the principal or interest on her debt to Britain.

When put to a vote, the motion was defeated, 305 to 196. In the ma-
jority were Ormsby-Gore, Edward Wood, Amery, three Cecils
(Robert, Evelyn, and Hugh), two Astors (John and Nancy), Samuel
Hoare, Eustace Percy, and Lord Wolmer. In the minority were Fisher,
Simon, and Arthur Salter.

By March, Fisher and Simon were more threatening to France. On
the sixth of that month, Fisher said in the House of Commons: "I can
only suggest this, that the Government make it clear to France, Ger-
many, and the whole world that they regard this present issue between
France and Germany, not as an issue affecting two nations, but as an
issue affecting the peace and prosperity of the whole world. We should
keep before ourselves steadily the idea of an international solution. We
should work for it with all our power, and we should make it clear to
France that an attempt to effect a separate solution of this question
could not be considered otherwise than as an unfriendly act." Exactly a
week later, John Simon, in a parliamentary maneuver, made a motion
to cut the appropriation bill for the Foreign Office by £100 and seized
the opportunity to make a violent attack on the actions of France. He
was answered by Eustace Percy, who in turn was answered by Fisher.

In this way the Group tried to keep the issue before the minds of the
British public and to prepare the way for the Dawes settlement. The
Round Table, appealing to a somewhat different public, kept up a
similar barrage. In the June 1923 issue, and again in September, it con-
demned the occupation of the Ruhr. In the former it suggested a three-
part program as follows: (1) find out what Germany can pay, by an ex-

244 / The Anglo-American Establishment

pert committee's investigation; (2) leave Germany free to work and
produce, by an immediate evacuation of the Rhineland [!! my italics];
and (3) protect France and Germany from each other [another hint
about the future Locarno Pacts]. This program, according to The
Round Table, should be imposed on France with the threat that if
France did not accept it, Britain would withdraw from the Rhineland
and Reparations Commissions and formally terminate the Entente. It
concluded: "The Round Table has not hesitated in recent months to
suggest that [British] neutrality . . . was an attitude inconsistent either
with the honour or the interests of the British Commonwealth." The
Round Table even went so far as to say that the inflation in Germany
was caused by the burden of reparations. In the September 1923 issue it
said (probably by the pen of Brand): "In the last two years it is not in-
flation which has brought down the mark; the printing presses have
been engaged in a vain attempt to follow the depreciation of the cur-
rency. That depreciation has been a direct consequence of the world's
judgment that the Allied claims for reparation were incapable of being
met. It will continue until that judgment, or in other words, those
claims are revised."

In October 1923, Smuts, who was in London for the Imperial Con-
ference and was in close contact with the Group, made speeches in
which he compared the French occupation of the Ruhr with the Ger-
man attack on Belgium in 1914 and said that Britain "may soon have to
start rearming herself in sheer self-defence" against French militarism.
John Dove, writing to Brand in a private letter, found an additional
argument against France in the fact that her policy was injuring
democracy in Germany. He wrote:

It seems to me that the most disastrous effect of Poincare's policy would be
the final collapse of democracy in Germany, the risk of which has been
pointed out in The Round Table. The irony of the whole situation is that
if the Junkers should capture the Reich again, the same old antagonisms
will revive and we shall find ourselves willy-nilly, lined up again with
France to avert a danger which French action has again called into being.
. . . Even if Smuts follows up his fine speech, the situation may have
changed so much before the Imperial Conference is over that people who
think like him and us may find ourselves baffled. ... I doubt if we shall
again have as good a chance of getting a peaceful democracy set up in
Germany.

After the Dawes Plan went into force, the Milner Group's policies
continued to be followed by the British government. The "policy of
fulfillment" pursued by Germany under Stresemann was close to the
heart of the Group. In fact, there is a certain amount of evidence that
the Group was in a position to reach Stresemann and advise him to
follow this policy. This was done through Smuts and Lord D'Abernon.

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 245

There is little doubt that the Locarno Pacts were designed in the Milner
Group and were first brought into public notice by Stresemann, at the
suggestion of Lord D'Abernon.

Immediately after Smuts made his speech against France in October
1923, he got in touch with Stresemann, presumably in connection with
the South African Mandate in South-West Africa. Smuts himself told
the story to Mrs. Millen, his authorized biographer, in these words:

I was in touch with them [the Germans] in London over questions con-
cerning German South-West. They had sent a man over from their
Foreign Office to see me. 4 I can't say the Germans have behaved very
well about German South-West, but that is another matter. Well, natu-
rally, my speech meant something to this fellow. The English were hating
the Ruhr business; it was turning them from France to Germany, the
whole English-speaking world was hating it. Curzon, in particular, was
hating it. Yet very little was being done to express all this feeling. I took it
upon myself to express the feeling. I acted, you understand, unofficially. I
consulted no one. But I could see my action would not be abhorrent to the
Government — would, in fact, be a relief to them. When the German
from the Foreign Office came to me full of what this sort of attitude
would mean to Stresemann I told him I was speaking only for myself.
"But you can see," I said, "that the people here approve of my speech. If
my personal advice is any use to you, I would recommend the Germans to
give up their policy of non-cooperation, to rely on the goodwill of the
world and make a sincere advance towards the better understanding
which I am sure can be brought about." I got in touch with Stresemann.
Our correspondence followed those lines. You will remember that
Stresemann's policy ended in the Dawes Plan and the Pact of Locarno and
that he got the Nobel Peace for this workl"

In this connection it is worthy of note that the German Chancellor,
at a Cabinet meeting on 12 November 1923, quoted Smuts by name as
the author of what he (Stresemann) considered the proper road out of
the crisis.

Lord D'Abernon was not a member of the Milner Group. He was,
however, a member of the Cecil Bloc's second generation and had
been, at one time, a rather casual member of "The Souls." This, it will
be recalled, was the country-house set in which George Curzon, Arthur
Balfour, Alfred Lyttelton, St. John Brodrick, and the Tennant sisters
were the chief figures. Born Edgar Vincent, he was made Baron
D'Abernon in 1914 by Asquith who was also a member of "The Souls"
and married Margot Tennant in 1894. D'Abernon joined the Cold-
stream Guards in 1877 after graduating from Eton, but within a few
years was helping Lord Salisbury to unravel the aftereffects of the Con-
gress of Berlin. By 1880 he was private secretary to Lord Edmond
Fitzmaurice, brother of Lord Lansdowne and Commissioner for Euro-

246 / The Anglo-American Establishment

pean Turkey. The following year he was assistant to the British
Commissioner for Evacuation of the Territory ceded to Greece by
Turkey. In 1882 he was the British, Belgian, and Dutch representative
on the Council of the Ottoman Public Debt, and soon became presi-
dent of that Council. From 1883 to 1889 he was financial adviser to the
Egyptian government and from 1889 to 1897 was governor of the
Imperial Ottoman Bank in Constantinople. In Salisbury's third
administration he was a Conservative M.P. for Exeter (1899-1906).
The next few years were devoted to private affairs in international
banking circles close to Milner. In 1920 he was the British civilian
member of the "Weygand mission to Warsaw." This mission un-
doubtedly had an important influence on his thinking. As a chief figure
in Salisbury's efforts to bolster up the Ottoman Empire against Russia,
D'Abernon had always been anti-Russian. In this respect, his
background was like Curzon's. As a result of the Warsaw mission,
D'Abernon's anti-Russian feeling was modified to an anti-Bolshevik
one of much greater intensity. To him the obvious solution seemed to
be to build up Germany as a military bulwark against the Soviet
Union. He said as much in a letter of 11 August 1920 to Sir Maurice
Hankey. This letter, printed by D'Abernon in his book on the Battle of
Warsaw (The Eighteenth Decisive Battle of the World, published
1931), suggests that "a good bargain might be made with the German
military leaders in cooperating against the Soviet." Shortly afterwards,
D'Abernon was made British Ambassador at Berlin. At the time, it was
widely rumored and never denied that he had been appointed prima-
rily to obtain some settlement of the reparations problem, it being felt
that his wide experience in international public finance would qualify
him for this work. This may have been so, but his prejudices likewise
qualified him for only one solution to the problem, the one desired by
the Germans. 5

In reaching this solution, D'Abernon acted as the intermediary
among Stresemann, the German Chancellor; Curzon, the Foreign
Secretary; and, apparently, Kindersley, Brand's associate at Lazard
Brothers. According to Harold Nicolson in his book Curzon: The Last
Phase (1934), "The initial credit for what proved the ultimate solution
belongs, in all probability, to Lord D'Abernon — one of the most acute
and broad-minded diplomatists which this country has ever possessed."
In the events leading up to Curzon's famous note to France of 11
August 1923, the note which contended that the Ruhr occupation
could not be justified under the Treaty of Versailles, D'Abernon played
an important role both in London and in Berlin. In his Diary of an
Ambassador, D'Abernon merely listed the notes between Curzon and
France and added: "Throughout this controversy Lord D'Abernon had
been consulted."

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 247

During his term as Ambassador in Berlin, D'Abernon's policy was
identical with that of the Milner Group, except for the shading that he
was more anti-Soviet and less anti-French and was more impetuous in
his desire to tear up the Treaty of Versailles in favor of Germany. This
last distinction rested on the fact that D'Abernon was ready to appease
Germany regardless of whether it were democratic or not; indeed, he
did not regard democracy as either necessary or good for Germany.
The Milner Group, until 1929, was still in favor of a democratic Ger-
many, because they realized better than D'Abernon the danger to
civilization from an undemocratic Germany. It took the world depres-
sion and its resulting social unrest to bring the Milner Group around to
the view which D'Abernon held as early as 1920, that appeasement to
an undemocratic Germany could be used as a weapon against "social
disorder."

Brigadier General J. H. Morgan, whom we have already quoted,
makes perfectly clear that D'Abernon was one of the chief obstacles in
the path of the Interallied Commission's efforts to force Germany to
disarm. In 1920, when von Seeckt, Commander of the German Army,
sought modifications of the disarmament rules which would have per-
mitted large-scale evasion of their provisions, General Morgan found it
impossible to get his dissenting reports accepted in London. He wrote
in Assize of Arms: "At the eleventh hour I managed to get my reports on
the implications of von Seeckt 's plan brought to the direct notice of Mr.
Lloyd George through the agency of my friend Philip Kerr who, after
reading these reports, advised the Prime Minister to reject von Seeckt's
proposals. Rejected they were at the Conference of Spa in July 1920, as
we shall see, but von Seeckt refused to accept defeat and fell back on a
second move." When, in 1921, General Morgan became "gravely
disturbed" at the evasions of German disarmament, he wrote a
memorandum on the subject. It was suppressed by Lord D'Abernon.
Morgan added in his book: "I was not altogether surprised. Lord
D'Abernon was the apostle of appeasement." In January 1923, this
"apostle of appeasement" forced the British delegation on the Disarma-
ment Commission to stop all inspection operations in Germany. They
were never resumed, although the Commission remained in Germany
for four more years, and the French could do nothing without the
British members. 6

Throughout 1923 and 1924, D'Abernon put pressure on both the
German and the British governments to pursue a policy on the repara-
tions question which was identical with that which Smuts was
advocating at the same time and in the same quarters. He put pressure
on the British government to follow this policy on the grounds that any
different policy would lead to Stresemann's fall from office. This would
result in a very dangerous situation, according to D'Abernon (and

248 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Stresemann), where Germany might fall into the control of either the
extreme left or the extreme right. For example, a minute of a German
Cabinet meeting of 2 November 1923, found by Eric Sutton among
Stresemann's papers and published by him, said in part: "To the
English Ambassador, who made some rather anxious enquiries,
Stresemann stated that the maintenance of the state of siege was
absolutely essential in view of the risk of a Putsch both from the Left
and from the Right. He would use all his efforts to preserve the unity of
the Reich. . . . Lord D'Abernon replied that his view, which was
shared in influential quarters in London, was that Stresemann was the
only man who could steer the German ship of State through the present
troubled waters." Among the quarters in London which shared this
view, we find the Milner Group.

The settlement which emerged from the crisis, the Dawes Plan and
the evacuation of the Ruhr, was exactly what the Milner Group
wanted. From that point on to the banking crisis of 1931, their satisfac-
tion continued. In the years 1929-1931 they clearly had no direct
influence on affairs, chiefly because a Labour government was in office
in London, but their earlier activities had so predetermined the situa-
tion that it continued to develop in the direction they wished. After the
banking crisis of 1931, the whole structure of international finance
with which the Group had been so closely associated disappeared and,
after a brief period of doubt, was replaced by a rapid growth of
monopolistic national capitalism. This was accepted by the Milner
Group with hardly a break in stride. Hichens had been deeply involved
in monopolistic heavy industry for a quarter of a century in 1932.
Milner had advocated a system of "national capitalism" with
"industrial self-regulation" behind tariff walls even earlier. Amery and
others had accepted much of this as a method, although they did not
necessarily embrace Milner's rather socialistic goals. As a result, in the
period 1931-1933, the Milner Group willingly liquidated reparations,
war debts, and the whole structure of international capitalism, and
embraced protection and cartels instead.

Parallel with their destruction of reparations, and in a much more
direct fashion, the Milner Group destroyed collective security through
the League of Nations. The Group never intended that the League of
Nations should be used to achieve collective security. They never
intended that sanctions, either military or economic, should be used to
force any aggressive power to keep the peace or to enforce any political
decision which might be reached by international agreement. This
must be understood at the beginning. The Milner Group never in-
tended that the League should be used as an instrument of collective
security or that sanctions should be used as an instrument by the

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 249

League. From the beginning, they expected only two things from the
League: (1) that it could be used as a center for international coopera-
tion in international administration in nonpolitical matters, and (2)
that it could be used as a center for consultation in political matters. In
regard to the first point, the Group regarded the League as a center for
such activities as those previously exercised through the International
Postal Union. In all such activities as this, each state would retain full
sovereignty and would cooperate only on a completely voluntary basis
in fields of social importance. In regard to the second point (political
questions), no member of the Group had any intention of any state
yielding any sliver of its full sovereignty to the League. The League
was merely an agreement, like any treaty, by which each state bound
itself to confer together in a crisis and not make war within three
months of the submission of the question to consultation. The whole
purpose of the League was to delay action in a crisis by requiring this
period for consultation. There was no restriction on action after the
three months. There was some doubt, within the Group, as to whether
sanctions could be used to compel a state to observe the three months'
delay. Most of the members of the Group said "no" to this question. A
few said that economic sanctions could be used. Robert Cecil, at the
beginning, at least, felt that political sanctions might be used to compel
a state to keep the peace for the three months, but by 1922 every
member of the Group had abandoned both political and economic
sanctions for enforcing the three months' delay. There never was
within the Group any intention at any time to use sanctions for any
other purpose, such as keeping peace after the three-month period.

This, then, was the point of view of the Milner Group in 1919, as in
1939. Unfortunately, in the process of drawing up the Covenant of the
League in 1919, certain phrases or implications were introduced into
the document, under pressure from France, from Woodrow Wilson,
and from other groups in Britain, which could be taken to indicate that
the League might have been intended to be used as a real instrument of
collective security, that it might have involved some minute limitation
of state sovereignty, that sanctions might under certain circumstances
be used to protect the peace. As soon as these implications became
clear, the Group's ardor for the League began to evaporate. When the
United States refused to join the League, this dwindling ardor turned
to hatred. Nevertheless, the Group did not abandon the League at this
point. On the contrary, they tightened their grip on it — in order to pre-
vent any "foolish" persons from using the vague implications of the
Covenant in an effort to make the League an instrument of collective
security. The Group were determined that if any such effort as this
were made, they would prevent it and, if necessary, destroy the League

250 / The Anglo-American Establishment

to prevent it. Only they would insist, in such a case, that the League
was destroyed not by them but by the persons who tried to use it as an
instrument of collective security.

All of this may sound extreme. Unfortunately, it is not extreme. That
this was what the Group did to the League is established beyond doubt
in history. That the Group intended to do this is equally beyond
dispute. The evidence is conclusive. >

The British ideas on the League and the British drafts of the Cove-
nant were formed by four men, all close to the Milner Group. They
were Lord Robert Cecil, General Smuts, Lord Phillimore, and Alfred
Zimmern. For drafting documents they frequently used Cecil Hurst, a
close associate, but not a member, of the Group. Hurst (Sir Cecil since
1920) was assistant legal adviser to the Foreign Office in 1902-1918,
legal adviser in 1918-1929, a judge on the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice at The Hague in 1929-1946, and Chairman of the United
Nations War Crimes Commission in 1943-1944. He was the man
responsible for the verbal form of Articles 10-16 (the sanction articles)
of the Covenant of the League of Nations, for the Articles of Agreement
with Ireland in 1921, and for the wording of the Locarno Pact in 1925.
He frequently worked closely with the Milner Group. For example, in
1921 he was instrumental in making an agreement by which the British
Yearbook of International Law, of which he was editor, was affiliated
with the Royal Institute of International Affairs. At the time, he and
Curtis were working together on the Irish agreement.

As early as 1916, Lord Robert Cecil was trying to persuade the
Cabinet to support a League of Nations. This resulted in the appoint-
ment of the Phillimore Committee, which drew up the first British
draft for the Covenant. As a result, in 1918-1919 Lord Robert became
the chief government spokesman for a League of Nations and the
presumed author of the second British draft. The real author of this
second draft was Alfred Zimmern. Cecil and Zimmern were both
dubious of any organization that would restrict state sovereignty. On
12 November 1918, the day after the armistice, Lord Robert made a
speech at Birmingham on the type of League he expected. That speech
shows clearly that he had little faith in the possibility of disarmament
and none in international justice or military sanctions to preserve the
peace. The sovereignty of each state was left intact. As W. E. Rappard
(director of the Graduate School of International Studies at Geneva)
wrote in International Conciliation in June 1927, "He [Lord Cecil] was
very sceptical about the possibility of submitting vital international
questions to the judgment of courts of law and 'confessed to the gravest
doubts' as to the practicability of enforcing the decrees of such courts
by any 'form of international force.' On the other hand, he firmly
believed in the efficacy of economic pressure as a means of coercing a

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 251

country bent on aggression in violation of its pacific agreements." It
might be remarked in passing that the belief that economic sanctions
could be used without a backing of military force, or the possibility of
needing such backing, is the one sure sign of a novice in foreign
politics, and Robert Cecil could never be called a novice in such mat-
ters. In the speech itself he said:

The most important step we can now take is to devise machinery which,
in case of international dispute, will, at the least, delay the outbreak of
war, and secure full and open discussion of the causes of the quarrel. For
that purpose ... all that would be necessary would be a treaty binding
the signatories never to wage war themselves or permit others to wage
war till a formal conference of nations had been held to enquire into, and,
if possible, decide the dispute. It is probably true, at least in theory, that
decisions would be difficult to obtain, for the decisions of such a confer-
ence, like all other international proceedings, would have to be unani-
mous to be binding. But since the important thing is to secure delay and
open discussion, that is to say, time to enable public opinion to act and
information to instruct it, this is not a serious objection to the proposal.
Indeed, from one point of view, it is an advantage, since it avoids any
interference with national sovereignty except the interposition of a delay
in seeking redress by force of arms. This is the essential thing. ... To that
extent, and to that extent only, international coercion would be neces-
sary.

This speech of Cecil's was approved by The Round Table and
accepted as its own point of view in the issue of December 1918. At the
same time, through Smuts, the Milner Group published another state-
ment of its views. This pamphlet, called The League of Nations, a
Practical Suggestion, was released in December 1918, after having
been read in manuscript and criticized by the inner circle, especially
Curtis. This statement devoted most of its effort to the use of mandates
for captured German colonies. For preserving the peace, it had con-
siderable faith in compulsory arbitration and hoped to combine this
with widespread disarmament.

The Group's own statement on this subject appeared in the
December 1918 issue of The Round Table in an article called "Win-
dows of Freedom," written by Curtis. He pointed out that British
seapower had twice saved civilization and any proposal that it should
be used in the future only at the request of the League of Nations must
be emphatically rejected. The League would consist of fallible human
beings, and England could never yield her decision to them. He con-
tinued: "Her own existence and that of the world's freedom are in-
separably connected. ... To yield it without a blow is to yield the
whole citadel in which the forces that make for human freedom are en-
trenched; to covenant to yield it is to bargain a betrayal of the world in

252 / The Anglo-American Establishment

advance. . . . [The League must not be a world government.] If the
burden of a world government is placed on it it will fall with a crash."
He pointed out it could be a world government only if it represented
peoples and not states, and if it had the power to tax those peoples. It
should simply be an interstate conference of the world.

The Peace Conference . . . cannot hope to produce a written constitution
for the globe or a genuine government of mankind. What it can do is
establish a permanent annual conference between foreign ministers them-
selves, with a permanent secretariat, in which, as at the Peace Conference
itself, all questions at issue between States can be discussed and, if pos-
sible, settled by agreement. Such a conference cannot itself govern the
world, still less those portions of mankind who cannot yet govern them-
selves. But it can act as a symbol and organ of the human conscience,
however imperfect, to which real governments of existing states can be
made answerable for facts which concern the world at large."

In another article in the same issue of The Round Table ("Some Prin-
ciples and Problems of the Settlement," December 1918), similar ideas
were expressed even more explicitly by Zimmern. He stated that the
League of Nations should be called the League of States, or the
Interstate Conference, for sovereign states would be its units, and it
would make not laws but contracts. "The League of Nations, in fact, so
far from invalidating or diminishing national sovereignty, should
strengthen and increase it. . . . The work before the coming age is not
to supersede the existing States but to moralize them. . . . Membership
must be restricted to those states where authority is based upon the
consent of the people over whom it is exercised . . . the reign of law. . . .
It can reasonably be demanded that no States should be admitted
which do not make such a consummation one of the deliberate aims of
their policy." Under this idea, The Round Table excluded by name
from the new League, Liberia, Mexico, "and above all Russia." "The
League," it continued, "will not simply be a League of States, it will be
a League of Commonwealths." As its hopes in the League dwindled,
The Round Table became less exclusive, and, in June 1919, it declared,
"without Germany or Russia the League of Nations will be dangerously
incomplete."

In the March 1919 issue, The Round Table described in detail the
kind of League it wanted — "a common clearing house for non-
contentious business." Its whole basis was to be "public opinion," and
its organization was to be that of "an assembly point of bureaucrats of
various countries" about an international secretariat and various
organizations like the International Postal Union or the International
Institute of Agriculture.

Every great department of government in each country whose activities

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 253

touch those of similar departments in other countries should have its
recognized delegates on a permanent international commission charged
with the study of the sphere of international relations in question and
with the duty of making recommendations to their various Governments.
. . . Across the street, as it were, from these permanent Bureaux, at the
capital of the League, there should be another central permanent Bureau
... an International secretariat. . . . They must not be national ambas-
sadors, but civil servants under the sole direction of a non-national chan-
cellor; and the aim of the whole organization . . . must be to evolve a
practical international sense, a sense of common service.

This plan regarded the Council of the League as the successor of the
Supreme War Council, made up of premiers and foreign ministers, and
the instrument for dealing with political questions in a purely con-
sultative way. Accordingly, the Council would consist only of the
Great Powers.

These plans for the Covenant of the League of Nations were rudely
shattered at the Peace Conference when the French demanded that the
new organization be a "Super-state" with its own army and powers of
action. The British were horrified, but with the help of the Americans
were able to shelve this suggestion. However, to satisfy the demand
from their own delegations as well as the French, they spread a
camouflage of sham world government over the structure they had
planned. This was done by Cecil Hurst. Hurst visited David Hunter
Miller, the American legal expert, one night and persuaded him to
replace the vital clauses 10 to 16 with drafts drawn up by Hurst. These
drafts were deliberately drawn with loopholes so that no aggressor
need ever be driven to the point where sanctions would have to be ap-
plied. This was done by presenting alternative paths of action leading
toward sanctions, some of them leading to economic sanctions, but one
path, which could be freely chosen by the aggressor, always available,
leading to a loophole where no collective action would be possible. The
whole procedure was concealed beneath a veil of legalistic terminology
so that the Covenant could be presented to the public as a watertight
document, but Britain could always escape from the necessity to apply
sanctions through a loophole.

In spite of this, the Milner Group were very dissatisfied. They tried
simultaneously to do three things: (1) to persuade public opinion that
the League was a wonderful instrument of international cooperation
designed to keep the peace; (2) to criticize the Covenant for the "traces
of a sham world-government" which had been thrown over it; and (3)
to reassure themselves and the ruling groups in England, the Domin-
ions, and the United States that the League was not "a world-state." All
of this took a good deal of neat footwork, or, more accurately, nimble
tongues and neat pen work. More doubletalk and doublewriting were

254 / The Anglo-American Establishment

emitted by the Milner Group on this subject in the two decades
1919-1939 than was issued by any other group on this subject in the
period.

Among themselves the Group did not conceal their disappointment
with the Covenant because it went too far. In the June 1919 issue of
The Round Table they said reassuringly: "The document is not the
Constitution of a Super-state, but, as its title explains, a solemn agree-
ment between Sovereign States which consent to limit their complete
freedom of action on certain points. . . . The League must continue to
depend on the free consent, in the last resort, of its component States;
this assumption is evident in nearly every article of the Covenant, of
which the ultimate and most effective sanction must be the public
opinion of the civilized world. If the nations of the future are in the
main selfish, grasping, and bellicose, no instrument or machinery will
restrain them." But in the same issue we read the complaint: "In the
Imperial Conference Sir Wilfrid Laurier was never tired of saying,
'This is not a Government, but a conference of Governments with
Governments.' It is a pity that there was no one in Paris to keep on say-
ing this. For the Covenant is still marked by the traces of sham govern-
ment."

By the March 1920 issue, the full bitterness of the Group on this last
point became evident. It said: "The League has failed to secure the
adhesion of one of its most important members, The United States, and
is very unlikely to secure it. . . . This situation presents a very serious
problem for the British Empire. We have not only undertaken great
obligations under the League which we must now both in honesty and
in self-regard revise, but we have looked to the League to provide us
with the machinery for United British action in foreign affairs, " (my
italics; this is the cat coming out of the bag) . The article continued with
criticism of Wilson, and praise of the Republican Senate's refusal to
swallow the League as it stood. It then said:

The vital weakness of the Treaty and the Covenant became more clear
than ever in the months succeeding the signature at Versailles. A settle-
ment based on ideal principles and poetic justice can be permanently
applied and maintained only by a world government to which all nations
will subordinate their private interests. . . . It demands, not only that they
should sacrifice their private interests to this world-interest, but also that
they should be prepared to enforce the claims of world-interest even in
matters where their own interests are in no wise engaged. It demands, in
fact, that they should subordinate their national sovereignty to an inter-
national code and an international ideal. The reservations of the
American Senate . . . point the practical difficulties of this ideal with
simple force. All the reservations . . . are affirmations of the sovereign
right of the American people to make their own policy without interfer-
ence from an International League. . . . None of these reservations, it

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 255

should be noted, contravenes the general aims of the League; but they
are, one and all, directed to ensure that no action is taken in pursuit of
those aims except with the consent and approval of the Congress. . . .
There is nothing peculiar in this attitude. It is merely, we repeat, the
broad reflex of an attitude already taken up by all the European Allies in
questions where their national interests are affected, and also by the
British Dominions in their relations with the British Government. It gives
us a statement in plain English, of the limitations to the ideal of interna-
tional action which none of the other Allies will, in practice, dispute. So
far, therefore, from destroying the League of Nations, the American
reservations have rendered it the great service of pointing clearly to the
flaws which at present neutralize its worth.

Among these flaws, in the opinion of the Milner Group, was the fact
that their plan to use the League of Nations as a method of tying the
Dominions more closely to the United Kingdom had failed and,
instead, the Covenant

gave the Dominions the grounds, or rather the excuse, to avoid closer
union with the United Kingdom. ... It had been found in Paris that in
order to preserve its unity the British delegation must meet frequently as a
delegation to discuss its policy before meeting the representatives of for-
eign nations in conference. How was this unity of action to be maintained
after the signature of peace without committing the Dominion Govern-
ments to some new constitutional organization within the Common-
wealth? And if some new constitutional organization were to be devised
for this purpose, how could it fail to limit in some way the full national
independent status which the Dominion Governments had just achieved
by their recognition as individual members of the League of Nations? The
answer to these questions was found in cooperation within the League,
which was to serve, not only as the link between the British Empire and
foreign Powers, but as the link also between the constituent nations of the
British Empire itself. Imbued with this idea, the Dominion statesmen
accepted obligations to foreign Powers under the Covenant of the League
more binding than any obligations which they would undertake to their
kindred nations within the British Empire. In other words, they mort-
gaged their freedom of action to a league of foreign States in order to
avoid the possibility of mortgaging it to the British Government. It hardly
required the reservations of the American Senate to demonstrate the
illusory character of this arrangement. . . . The British Dominions have
made no such reservations with regard to the Covenant, and they are
therefore bound by the obligations which have been rejected by the
United States. Canada, Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand are, in
fact, bound by stronger written obligations to Poland and
Czechoslovakia, than to the British Isles. ... It is almost needless to
observe that none of the democracies of the British Empire has grasped
the extent of its obligations to the League of Nations or would hesitate to
repudiate them at once, if put to the test. If England were threatened by
invasion, the other British domocracies would mobilize at once for her

256 / The Anglo-American Establishment

support; but though they have a written obligation to Poland, which they
have never dreamed of giving to England, they would not in practice
mobilise a single man to defend the integrity of the Corridor to Danzig or
any other Polish territorial interest. . . . This is a dangerous and equivocal
situation. ... It is time that our democracies reviewed and corrected it
with the clearness of vision and candour of statement displayed by the
much-abused Senate of the United States. ... To what course of action do
these conclusions point? They point in the first place to revision of our
obligations under the League. We are at present pledged to guarantees of
territorial arrangements in Europe which may be challenged at any time
by forces too powerful for diplomatic control, and it is becoming evident
that in no part of the Empire would public opinion sanction our active
interference in the local disputes which may ensue. The Polish Corridor to
Danzig is a case in point. . . . Our proper course is to revise and restate our
position towards the League in accordance with these facts. . . . First, we
wish to do our utmost to guarantee peace, liberty, and law throughout the
world without committing ourselves to quixotic obligations to foreign
States. Second, we wish to assist and develop the simple mechanism of
international dealing embodied in the League without mortgaging our
freedom of action and judgment under an international Covenant. Our
policy toward the League should, therefore, be revised on the following
guiding lines: 1. We should state definitely that our action within the
League will be governed solely by our own judgment of every situation as
it arises, and we must undertake no general obligations which we may not
be able or willing, when the test comes, to discharge. 2. We must in no
case commit ourselves to responsibilities which we cannot discharge to the
full with our own resources, independent of assistance from any foreign
power. 3. We must definitely renounce the idea that the League may nor-
mally enforce its opinions by military or economic pressure on the
recalcitrant States. It exists to bring principals together for open discus-
sion of international difficulties, to extend and develop the mechanisms
and habit of international cooperation, and to establish an atmosphere in
which international controversies may be settled with fairness and good-
will. . . . With the less ambitious objects defined above it will sooner or
later secure the whole-hearted support of American opinion. . . . The
influence of the League of Nations upon British Imperial relations has for
the moment been misleading and dangerous. ... It is only a question of
time before this situation leads to an incident of some kind which will
provoke the bitterest recrimination and controversy. . .

In the leading article of the September 1920 issue, The Round Table
took up the same problem and repeated many of its arguments. It
blamed Wilson for corrupting the Covenant into "a pseudo world-
government" by adding sham decorations to a fundamentally different
structure based on consultation of sovereign states. Instead of the Cove-
nant, it concluded, we should have merely continued the Supreme
Council, which was working so well at Spa.

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 257

In spite of this complete disillusionment with the League, the Milner
Group still continued to keep a firm grip on as much of it as Britain
could control. In the first hundred sessions of the Council of the League
of Nations (1920-1938), thirty different persons sat as delegates for
Britain. Omitting the four who sat for Labour governments, we have
twenty-six. Of these, seven were from the Milner Group; seven others
were present at only one session and are of little significance. The
others were almost all from the Cecil Bloc close to the Milner Group.
The following list indicates the distribution.

Name

Sessions as Delegate

Anthony Eden

39

Sir John Simon

22

Sir Austen Chamberlain

20

Arthur Balfour

16

Lord Robert Cecil

15

Sir Alexander Cadogan

12

E. H. Carr

8

H. A. L. Fisher

7

Sir William Malkin

7

Viscount Cranborne

5

Lord Curzon

3

Lord Londonderry

3

Leopold Amery

2

Edward Wood (Lord Halifax)

2

Cecil Hurst

2

Sir Edward H. Young

2

Lord Cushendun

2

Lord Onslow

2

Gilbert Murray

1

Sir Rennell Rodd

1

Six others

1 each

At the annual meetings of the Assembly of the League, a somewhat
similar situation existed. The delegations had from three to eight
members, with about half of the number being from the Milner Group,
except when members of the Labour Party were present. H. A. L.
Fisher was a delegate in 1920, 1921, and 1922; Mrs. Alfred Lyttelton
was one in 1923, 1926, 1927, 1928, and 1931; Lord Astor was one in
1931, 1936, and 1938; Cecil Hurst was one in 1924, 1926, 1927, and
1928; Gilbert Murray was one in 1924; Lord Halifax was one in 1923
and 1936; Ormsby-Gore was one in 1933; Lord Robert Cecil was one in
1923, 1926, 1929, 1930, 1931, and 1932; E. H. Carr was one in 1933
and 1934; etc. The Milner Group control was most complete at the
crucial Twelfth Assembly (1931), when the delegation of five members
consisted of Lord Robert Cecil, Lord Lytton, Lord Astor, Arthur

258 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Salter, and Mrs. Lyttelton. In addition, the Group frequently had
other members attached to the delegations as secretaries or substitutes.
Among these were E. H. Carr, A. L. Smith, and R. M. Makins.
Moreover, the Group frequently had members on the delegations from
the Dominions. The South African delegation in 1920 had Robert
Cecil; in 1921 it had Robert Cecil and Gilbert Murray; in 1923 it had
Smuts and Gilbert Murray. The Australian delegation had Sir John
Latham in 1926, while the Canadian delegation had Vincent Massey
ten years later. The Indian delegation had L. F. Rushbrook Williams
in 1925.

The Milner Group was also influential in the Secretariat of the
League. Sir Eric Drummond (now sixteenth Earl of Perth), who had
been Balfour's private secretary from 1916 to 1919, was Secretary-
General to the League from 1919 to 1933, when he resigned to become
British Ambassador in Rome. Not a member of the Group, he was
nevertheless close to it. Harold Butler, of the Group and of All Souls,
was deputy director and director of the International Labor Office in
the period 1920-1938. Arthur Salter, of the Group and All Souls, was
director of the Economic and Financial Section of the League in
1919-1920 and again in 1922-1931. B. H. Sumner, of the Group and All
Souls (now Warden), was on the staff of the ILO in 1920-1922. R. M.
Makins, of the Group and All Souls, was assistant adviser and adviser
on League of Nations affairs to the Foreign Office in 1937-1939.

To build up public opinion in favor of the League of Nations, the
Milner Group formed an organization known as the League of Nations
Union. In this organization the most active figures were Lord Robert
Cecil, Gilbert Murray, the present Lord Esher, Mrs. Lyttelton, and
Wilson Harris. Lord Cecil was president from 1923 to 1945; Professor
Murray was chairman from 1923 to 1938 and co-president from 1938 to
1945; Wilson Harris was its parliamentary secretary and editor of its
paper, Headway, for many years. Among others, C. A. Macartney, of
All Souls and the RIIA, was head of the Intelligence Department from
1928 to 1936. Harris and Macartney were late additions to the Group,
the former becoming a member of the inner circle about 1922, while
the latter became a member of the outer circle in the late 1920s, prob-
ably as a result of his association with the Encyclopedia Britannica as
an expert on Central Europe. Wilson Harris was one of the most in-
timate associates of Lionel Curtis, Philip Kerr, and other members of
the inner core in the 1920s, and this association became closer, if pos-
sible, in the 1930s. A graduate of Cambridge University in 1906, he
served for many years in various capacities with the Daily News. Since
1932 he has been editor of The Spectator, and since 1945 he has been a
Member of Parliament from Cambridge University. He was one of the

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 259

most ardent advocates of appeasement in the period 1935-1939, espe-
cially in the meetings at Chatham House. In this connection, it might
be mentioned that he was a member of the council of the RIIA in
1924-1927. He has written books on Woodrow Wilson, the peace settle-
ment, the League of Nations, disarmament, etc. His most recent work
is a biography of J. A. Spender, onetime editor of the Westminster
Gazette (1896-1922), which he and his brother founded in 1893 in col-
laboration with Edmund Garrett and Edward Cook, when all four left
the Pall Mall Gazette after its purchase by Waldorf Astor.

The ability of the Milner Group to mobilize public opinion in regard
to the League of Nations is almost beyond belief. It was not a simple
task, since they were simultaneously trying to do two things: on the one
hand, seeking to build up popular opinion in favor of the League so
that its work could be done more effectively; and, at the same time,
seeking to prevent influential people from using the League as an in-
strument of world government before popular opinion was ready for a
world government. In general, The Round Table and The Times were
used for the latter purpose, while the League of Nations Union and a
strange assortment of outlets, such as Chatham House, Toynbee Hall,
extension courses at Oxford, adult-education courses in London, Inter-
national Conciliation in the United States, the Institute of Politics at
Williamstown, the Institute of Intellectual Cooperation at Paris, the
Geneva School of International Studies and the Graduate Institute of
International Studies at Geneva, and the various branches of the
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, were used for the
former purpose. The Milner Group did not control all of these. Their
influence was strong in all of them, and, since the influence of J. P.
Morgan and Company was also strong in most of them and since
Morgan and the Group were pursuing a parallel policy on this issue,
the Group were usually able to utilize the resources of these various
organizations when they wished.

As examples of this, we might point out that Curtis and Kerr each
gave a series of lectures at the Institute of Politics, Williamstown, in
1922. Selections from these, along with an article from the September
1922 issue of The Round Table, were published in International Con-
ciliation for February 1923. Kerr and Lord Birkenhead spoke at the In-
stitute in 1923; Sir Arthur Willert, a close associate if not a member of
the Group, spoke at the Institute of Politics in 1927. Sir Arthur was
always close to the Group. He was a member of the staff of The Times
from 1906 to 1921, chiefly as head of the Washington office; he was in
the Foreign Office as head of the News Department from 1921 to 1935,
was on the United Kingdom delegation to the League of Nations in
1929-1934, was an important figure in the Ministry of Information (a

260 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Milner Group fief) in 1939-1945, and wrote a book called The Empire
and the World in collaboration with H. V. Hodson and B. K. Long of
the Kindergarten.

Other associates of the Group who spoke at the Institute of Politics at
Williamstown were Lord Eustace Percy, who spoke on wartime ship-
ping problems in 1929, and Lord Meston, who spoke on Indian na-
tionalism in 1930. 7

The relationship between the Milner Group and the valuable little
monthly publication called International Conciliation was exercised
indirectly through the parallel group in America, which had been
organized by the associates of J. P. Morgan and Company before the
First World War, and which made its most intimate connections with
the Milner Group at the Peace Conference of 1919. We have already
mentioned this American group in connection with the Council on
Foreign Relations and the Institute of Pacific Relations. Through this
connection, many of the activities and propaganda effusions of the
Milner Group were made available to a wide public in America. We
have already mentioned the February 1923 issue of International Con-
ciliation, which was monopolized by the Group. A few other examples
might be mentioned. Both of General Smuts's important speeches, that
of 23 October 1923 and that of 13 November 1934, were reproduced in
International Conciliation. So too was an article on "The League and
Minorities" by Wilson Harris. This was in the September 1926 issue. A
Times editorial of 22 November 1926 on "The Empire as It Is" was
reprinted in March 1927; another of 14 July 1934 is in the September
issue of the same year; a third of 12 July 1935 is in the issue of Sep-
tember 1935. Brand's report on Germany's Foreign Creditors' Stand-
still Agreements is in the May issue of 1932; while a long article from
the same pen on "The Gold Problem" appears in the October 1937
issue. This article was originally published, over a period of three days,
in The Times in June 1937. An article on Russia from The Round Table
was reprinted in December 1929. Lord Lothian's speeches of 25
October 1939 and of 11 December 1940 were both printed in the issues
of International Conciliation immediately following their delivery. An
article by Lothian called "League or No League," first published in
The Observer in August 1936, was reprinted in the periodical under
consideration in December 1936. An article by Lord Cecil on disarma-
ment, another by Clarence Streit (one of the few American members of
the Group) on the League of Nations, and a third by Stephen King-
Hall on the Mediterranean problem were published in December 1932,
February 1934, and January 1938 respectively. A speech of John
Simon's appears in the issue of May 1935; one of Samuel Hoare's is in
the September issue of the same year; another by Samuel Hoare is in
the issue of November 1935. Needless to say, the activities of the In-

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 261

stitute of Pacific Relations, of the Imperial Conferences, of the League
of Nations, and of the various international meetings devoted to
reparations and disarmament were adequately reflected in the pages of
International Conciliation.

The deep dislike which the Milner Group felt for the Treaty of Ver-
sailles and the League of Nations was shared by the French, but for
quite opposite reasons. The French felt insecure in the face of Germany
because they realized that France had beaten Germany in 1918 only
because of the happy fact that she had Russia, Great Britain, Italy, and
the United States to help her. From 1919 onward, France had no
guarantee that in any future attack by Germany she would have any
such assistance. To be sure, the French knew that Britain must come to
the aid of France if there was any danger of Germany defeating
France. The Milner Group knew this too. But France wanted some ar-
rangement by which Britain would be alongside France from the first
moment of a German attack, since the French had no assurance that
they could withstand a German onslaught alone, even for a brief
period. Moreover, if they could, the French were afraid that the
opening onslaught would deliver to the Germans control of the most
productive part of France as captured territory. This is what had hap-
pened in 1914. To avoid this, the French sought in vain one alternative
after another: (a) to detach from Germany, or, at least, to occupy for
an extended period, the Rhineland area of Germany (this would put
the Ruhr, the most vital industrial area of Germany, within striking
distance of French forces); (b) to get a British- American, or at least a
British, guarantee of French territory; (c) to get a "League of Nations
with teeth," that is, one with its own police forces and powers to act
automatically against an aggressor. All of these were blocked by the
English and Americans at the Peace Conference in 1919. The French
sought substitutes. Of these, the only one they obtained was a system of
alliances with new states, like Poland, Czechoslovakia, and the en-
larged Rumania, on the east of Germany. All of these states were of
limited power, and the French had little faith in the effectiveness of
their assistance. Accordingly, the French continued to seek their other
aims: to extend the fifteen years' occupation of the Rhineland into a
longer or even an indefinite period; to get some kind of British
guarantee; to strengthen the League of Nations by "plugging the gaps
in the Covenant"; to use the leverage of reparations and disarmament
as provided in the Treaty of Versailles to keep Germany down, to
wreck her economically, or even to occupy the Ruhr. All of these ef-
forts were blocked by the machinations of the Milner Group. At the
moment, we shall refer only to the efforts to "plug the gaps in the Cove-
nant."

These "gaps," as we have indicated, were put in by Cecil Hurst and

262 / The Anglo-American Establishment

were exactly to the taste of the Milner Group. The chief efforts of the
French and their allies on the Continent to "plug the gaps" were the
Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance (1923) and the Geneva Protocol
(1924). What the Milner Group thought of both of these can be
gathered from the following extracts from The Round Table's denun-
ciation of the Protocol. In the December 1924 issue, in an article en-
titled "The British Commonwealth, the Protocol, and the League," we
find the following: "What is to be the British answer to this invitation
to reenter the stormy field of internal European politics? Can the
British Commonwealth afford to become permanently bound up with
the internal political structure of Europe? And will it promote the
peace and stability of Europe or the world that Europe should attempt
to solve its problems on the basis of a permanent British guarantee?
The answer in our judgment to both these questions must be an em-
phatic, No." Then, after repeating its contention that the only purpose
of the Covenant was to secure delay in a crisis for consultation, it con-
tinued:

The idea that all nations ought to consult how they are to deal with
States which precipitate war without allowing any period for enquiry
and mediation is the real heart of the League of Nations, and, if the Brit-
ish Commonwealth wants to prevent a recurrence of the Great War, it
must be willing to recognize that it has a vital interest in working out with
other nations the best manner of giving effect to this fundamental idea.
. . . Decisions as to the rights and wrongs of international disputes, and of
what common action the nations should take when they are called to-
gether to deal with such an outlaw, must be left to be determined in the
light of the circumstances of the time. . . . The view of The Round Table is
that the British Commonwealth should make it perfectly clear . . . that it
will accept no further obligations than this and that the Covenant of the
League must be amended to establish beyond question that no authority,
neither the Council nor any arbitral body it may appoint, has any power
to render a binding decision or to order a war, except with the consent of
the members themselves.

The bitterness of the Group's feelings against France at the time ap-
pears in the same article a couple of pages later when it asked: "Or is
the proposal implicit in the Protocol merely one for transferring to the
shoulders of Great Britain, which alone is paying her debts, some part
of the cost of maintaining that preponderance which now rests upon
the European States which profit most by it. ... It is sheer rubbish to
suggest that France needs military guarantees for security. . . . What
France really wants is a guarantee that the allies will maintain a
perpetual preponderance over Germany. This we can never give her,
for in the long run it makes not for peace but for war."

In another article in the same issue, the Protocol was analyzed and

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 263

denounced. The final conclusion was: "It is our firm conviction that no
alternative is acceptable which fails to provide for the free exercise by
the Parliaments and peoples of the Empire of their judgment as to how
to deal with any disturbance of the peace, or any threat of such distur-
bance, on its merits as it arises. That has been the guiding principle
throughout the political history of the British peoples. The methods of
the Protocol belong to another world, and, if for no other reason, they
should be rejected."

The Protocol was officially rejected by Austen Chamberlain at a ses-
sion of the Council of the League of Nations in March 1925. John
Dove, Lionel Curtis, Philip Kerr, and Wilson Harris went to Geneva to
be present at the meeting. After the deed was done, they went to visit
Prague and Berlin, and ended by meeting Lady Astor in Paris. From
Geneva and Paris, John Dove wrote to Brand letters which Brand later
published in his edition of The Letters of John Dove.

One of the reasons given by Austen Chamberlain in 1925 for re-
jecting the Geneva Protocol was the opposition of the Dominions. That
the Milner Group was able to affect Dominion opinion on this subject is
clear. They could use men like Massey and Glazebrook in Canada,
Bavin and Eggleston in Australia, Downie Stewart and Allen in New
Zealand, Smuts and Duncan in South Africa.

More important than the Milner Group's ability to influence opinion
in the Dominions was its ability to influence decisions in London. In
much of this latter field, Lord Esher undoubtedly played an important
role. It is perfectly clear that Lord Esher disliked collective security,
and for the same reasons as The Round Table. This can be seen in his
published Journals and Letters. For example, on 18 February 1919, in
a letter to Hankey, he wrote: "I fervently believe that the happiness
and welfare of the human race is more closely concerned in the evolu-
tion of English democracy and of our Imperial Commonwealth than in
the growth of any international League." On 7 December 1919, in
another letter to Hankey, he wrote: "You say that my letter was critical
and not constructive. So it was. But the ground must be cleared of
debris first. I assume that this is done. We will forget the high ideals
and the fourteen points for the moment. We will be eminently prac-
tical. So here goes. Do not let us bother about a League of Nations. It
may come slowly or not at all. What step forward, if any, can we
take? We can get a League of Empire." Shortly afterwards, writing to
his heir, the present Viscount Esher, he called the League "a paper
hoop." The importance of this can be seen if we realize that Lord Esher
was the most important factor on the Committee of Imperial Defence,
and this committee was one of the chief forces determining British
foreign policy in this period. In fact, no less an authority than Lord
Robert Cecil has said that the Geneva Protocol was rejected on the ad-

264 / The Anglo-American Establishment

vice of the Committee of Imperial Defence and that he accepted that
decision only when he was promised a new project which subsequently
became the Locarno Pacts. 8

The rejection of the Protocol by Britain was regarded subsequently
by real supporters of the League as the turning point in its career.
There was an outburst of public sentiment against this selfish and cold-
blooded action. Zimmern, who knew more than he revealed, went to
Oxford in May 1925 and made a brilliant speech against those who
were sabotaging the League. He did not identify them, but clearly in-
dicated their existence, and, as the crudest blow of all, attributed their
actions to a failure of intelligence.

As a result of this feeling, which was widespread throughout the
world, the Group determined to give the world the appearance of a
guarantee to France. This was done in the Locarno Pacts, the most
complicated and most deceitful international agreement made be-
tween the Treaty of Versailles and the Munich Pact. We cannot discuss
them in detail here, but must content ourselves with pointing out that
in appearance, and in the publicity campaign which accompanied
their formation, the Locarno agreements guaranteed the frontier of
Germany with France and Belgium with the power of these three states
plus Britain and Italy. In reality the agreements gave France nothing,
while they gave Britain a veto over French fulfillment of her alliances
with Poland and the Little Entente. The French accepted these decep-
tive documents for reasons of internal politics: obviously, any French
government which could make the French people believe that it had
been able to secure a British guarantee of France's eastern frontier
could expect the gratitude of the French people to be reflected at the
polls. The fundamental shrewdness and realism of the French,
however, made it difficult to conceal from them the trap that lay in the
Locarno agreements. This trap consisted of several interlocking fac-
tors. In the first place, the agreements did not guarantee the German
frontier and the demilitarized condition of the Rhineland against Ger-
man actions, but against the actions of either Germany or France.
This, at one stroke, gave Britain the legal grounds for opposing France
if she tried any repetition of the military occupation of the Ruhr, and,
above all, gave Britain the right to oppose any French action against
Germany in support of her allies to the east of Germany. This meant
that if Germany moved east against Czechoslovakia, Poland, and,
eventually, Russia, and if France attacked Germany's western frontier
in support of Czechoslovakia or Poland, as her alliances bound her to
do, Great Britain, Belgium, and Italy might be bound by the Locarno
Pacts to come to the aid of Germany. To be sure, the same agreement
might bind these three powers to oppose Germany if she drove
westward against France, but the Milner Group did not object to this

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 265

for several reasons. In the first place, if Germany attacked France
directly, Britain would have to come to the help of France whether
bound by treaty or not. The old balance-of-power principle made that
clear. In the second place, Cecil Hurst, the old master of legalistic
doubletalk, drew up the Locarno Pacts with the same kind of loopholes
which he had put in the crucial articles of the Covenant. As a result, if
Germany did violate the Locarno Pacts against France, Britain could,
if she desired, escape the necessity of fulfilling her guarantee by slip-
ping through one of Hurst's loopholes. As a matter of fact, when Hitler
did violate the Locarno agreements by remilitarizing the Rhineland in
March 1936, the Milner Group and their friends did not even try to
evade their obligation by slipping through a loophole, but simply
dishonored their agreement.

This event of March 1936, by which Hitler remilitarized the
Rhineland, was the most crucial event in the whole history of appease-
ment. So long as the territory west of the Rhine and a strip fifty
kilometers wide on the east bank of the river were demilitarized, as
provided in the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Pacts, Hitler
would never have dared to move against Austria, Czechoslovakia, and
Poland. He would not have dared because, with western Germany un-
fortified and denuded of German soldiers, France could have easily
driven into the Ruhr industrial area and crippled Germany so that it
would be impossible to go eastward. And by this date, certain members
of the Milner Group and of the British Conservative government had
reached the fantastic idea that they could kill two birds with one stone
by setting Germany and Russia against one another in Eastern Europe.
In this way they felt that the two enemies would stalemate one
another, or that Germany would become satisfied with the oil of
Rumania and the wheat of the Ukraine. It never occurred to anyone in
a responsible position that Germany and Russia might make common
cause, even temporarily, against the West. Even less did it occur to
them that Russia might beat Germany and thus open all Central
Europe to Bolshevism.

This idea of bringing Germany into a collision with Russia was not to
be found, so far as the evidence shows, among any members of the
inner circle of the Milner Group. Rather it was to be found among the
personal associates of Neville Chamberlain, including several members
of the second circle of the Milner Group. The two policies followed
parallel courses until March 1939. After that date the Milner Group's
disintegration became very evident, and part of it took the form of the
movement of several persons (like Hoare and Simon) from the second
circle of the Milner Group to the inner circle of the new group rotating
around Chamberlain. This process was concealed by the fact that this
new group was following, in public at least, the policy desired by the

266 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Milner Group; their own policy, which was really the continuation of
appeasement for another year after March 1939, was necessarily secret,
so that the contrast between the Chamberlain group and the inner cir-
cle of the Milner Group in the period after March 1939 was not as ob-
vious as it might have been.

In order to carry out this plan of allowing Germany to drive
eastward against Russia, it was necessary to do three things: (1) to liq-
uidate all the countries standing between Germany and Russia; (2) to
prevent France from honoring her alliances with these countries; and
(3) to hoodwink the English people into accepting this as a necessary,
indeed, the only solution to the international problem. The Chamber-
lain group were so successful in all three of these things that they came
within an ace of succeeding, and failed only because of the obstinacy of
the Poles, the unseemly haste of Hitler, and the fact that at the eleventh
hour the Milner Group realized the implications of their policy and
tried to reverse it.

The program of appeasement can be divided into three stages: the
first from 1920 to 1934, the second from 1934 to 1937, and the third
from 1937 to 1940. The story of the first period we have almost com-
pleted, except for the evacuation of the Rhineland in 1930, five years
ahead of the date set in the Treaty of Versailles. It would be too
complicated a story to narrate here the methods by which France was
persuaded to yield on this point. It is enough to point out that France
was persuaded to withdraw her troops in 1930 rather than 1935 as a
result of what she believed to be concessions made to her in the Young
Plan. That the Milner Group approved this evacuation goes without
saying. We have already mentioned The Round Table's demand of
June 1923 that the Rhineland be evacuated. A similar desire will be
found in a letter from John Dove to Brand in October 1927.

The second period of appeasement began with Smuts's famous
speech of 13 November 1934, delivered before the RIIA. The whole of
this significant speech deserves to be quoted here, but we must content
ourselves with a few extracts:

With all the emphasis at my command, I would call a halt to this war talk
as mischievous and dangerous war propaganda. The expectation of war
tomorrow or in the near future is sheer nonsense, and all those who are
conversant with affairs know it. . . . The remedy for this fear complex is
. . . bringing it into the open and exposing it to the light of day. . . . And
this is exactly the method of the League of Nations ... it is an open forum
for discussion among the nations, it is a round table for the statesmen
around which they can ventilate and debate their grievances and view-
points. . . . There are those who say that this is not enough — that as long
as the League remains merely a talking shop or debating society, and is
not furnished with "teeth" and proper sanctions, the sense of insecurity

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 267

will remain. ... It is also felt that the inability of the League to guarantee
the collective system by means of force, if necessary, is discrediting it and
leading to its decay. ... I cannot visualize the League as a military
machine. It was not conceived or built for that purpose, it is not equipped
for such functions. And if ever the attempt were made to transform it into
a military machine, into a system to carry on war for the purpose of
preventing war, I think its fate is sealed. . . . Defection of the United
States has largely defeated its main objects. And the joining up of the
United States must continue to be the ultimate goal of all true friends of
the League and of the cause of peace. A conference of the nations the
United States can, and eventually will, join; it can never join an interna-
tional War Office. Remembering the debates on this point in the League
of Nations Commission which drafted the Covenant, I say quite definitely
that the very idea of a league of force was negatived there; and the League
would be quite false to its fundamental idea and to its great mission ... if
it allowed itself to be turned into something quite different, something
just the opposite of its original idea — into a league of force. ... To
endeavor to cast out the Satan of fear by calling in the Beelzebub of
militarism, and militarizing the League itself, would be a senseless and in-
deed fatal proceeding. . . . The removal of the inferiority complex from
Germany is just as essential to future peace as the removal of fear from the
mind of France; and both are essential to an effective disarmament
policy. How can the inferiority complex which is obsessing and, I fear,
poisoning the mind and indeed the soul of Germany be removed? There is
only one way, and that is to recognize her complete equality of status with
her fellows, and to do so frankly, freely, and unreservedly. That is the
only medicine for her disease. . . . While one understands and sympa-
thizes with French fears, one cannot but feel for Germany in the position
of inferiority in which she still remains sixteen years after the conclusion
of the War. The continuance of her Versailles status is becoming an of-
fense to the conscience of Europe and a danger to future peace. . . . There
is no place in international law for second-rate nations, and least of all
should Germany be kept in that position. . . . Fair play, sportsmanship —
indeed, every standard of private and public life— calls for frank revision
of the position. Indeed, ordinary prudence makes it imperative. Let us
break those bonds and set the captive, obsessed, soul free in a decent
human way. And Europe will reap a rich reward in tranquillity, security,
and returning prosperity. ... I would say that to me the future policy and
association of our great British Commonwealth lie more with the United
States than with any other group in the world. If ever there comes a part-
ing of the ways, if ever in the crisis of the future we are called upon to
make a choice, that, it seems to me, should be the company we should
prefer to walk with and march with to the unknown future. . . . Nobody
can forecast the outcome of the stormy era of history on which we are
probably entering.

At the time that Smuts made this significant speech, the Milner
Group had already indicated to Hitler officially that Britain was

268 / The Anglo-American Establishment

prepared to give Germany arms equality. France had greeted the ar-
rival to power of Hitler by desperate efforts to form an "Eastern
Locarno" against Germany. Sir John Simon, who was Foreign
Secretary from September 1931 to June 1935, repudiated these efforts
on 13 July 1934 in a speech which was approved by The Times the
following day. He warned the French that Britain would not approve
any effort "to build up one combination against another," would refuse
to assume any new obligations herself, would insist that Russia join the
League of Nations before she become a party to any multilateral settle-
ment, and insisted on arms equality for Germany. On the same day,
Austen Chamberlain laid the groundwork for the German remilitariza-
tion of the Rhineland by a speech in which he insisted that the Locarno
agreements did not bind Britain to use troops. He clearly indicated
how Britain, by her veto power in the Council of the League, could
prevent a League request to provide troops to enforce Locarno, and
added that such a request would not be binding on Britain, even if
voted, since "there was no automatic obligation under the Government
to send our Army to any frontier."

In a debate in the House of Lords on 5 December 1934, Lord Cecil
contradicted Smuts's statement that "the idea of a League of force was
negatived" in 1918 and restated his own views that force should be
available to compel the observance of the three months' moratorium
between the settlement of a question by the Council and the outbreak
of war. He said: "The thing which we were most anxious to secure
against a renewal of a great war was that there should be collective
action to prevent a sudden outbreak of war. It was never part of the
Covenant system that force should be used in order to compel some
particular settlement of a dispute. That, we thought, was going
beyond what public opinion of the world would support; but we did
think we could go so far as to say: 'You are not to resort to war until
every other means for bringing about a settlement has been ex-
hausted.' " This was merely a restatement of the point of view that
Lord Cecil had held since 1918. It did not constitute collective security,
as the expression was used by the world in general. Yet this use of the
words "collective security" to mean the enforcement of a three months'
moratorium before issuing a declaration of war — this weaker
meaning— was being weakened even further by the Milner Group.
This was made perfectly clear in a speech by Lord Lothian (Philip
Kerr) immediately after Lord Cecil. On this day the latter parted from
the Milner Group program of appeasement; more than ten years after
Zimmern's, this defection is of less significance than the earlier one
because Lord Cecil did not see clearly what was being done and he had
never been, apparently, a member of the inner circle of the Group,

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 269

although he had attended meetings of the inner circle in the period
after 1910. 9

Lord Lothian's speech of 5 December 1934 in the House of Lords is,
at first glance, a defense of collective security, but a second look shows
clearly that by "collective security" the speaker meant appeasement.
He contrasts collective security with power diplomacy and, having ex-
cluded all use of force under the former expression, goes on to interpret
it to mean peaceful change without war. In the context of events, this
could only mean appeasement of Germany. He said: "In international
affairs, unless changes are made in time, war becomes inevitable. . . .
If the collective system is to be successful, it must contain two elements.
On the one hand, it must be able to bring about by pacific means
alterations in the international structure, and, on the other hand, it
must be strong enough to restrain Powers who seek to take the law into
their own hands either by war or by power diplomacy, from being suc-
cessful in their efforts." This was nothing but the appeasement pro-
gram of Chamberlain and Halifax — that concessions should be made to
Germany to strengthen her on the Continent and in Eastern Europe,
while Britain should remain strong enough on the sea and in the air to
prevent Hitler from using war to obtain these concessions. The fear of
Hitler's using war was based not so much on a dislike of force (neither
Lothian nor Halifax was a pacifist in that sense) but on the realization
that if Hitler made war against Austria, Czechoslovakia, or Poland,
public opinion in France and England might force their governments
to declare war in spite of their desire to yield these areas to Germany.
This, of course, is what finally happened.

Hitler was given ample assurance by the Milner Group, both within
and without the government, that Britain would not oppose his efforts
"to achieve arms equality." Four days before Germany officially de-
nounced the disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles, Leopold
Amery made a slashing attack on collective security, comparing "the
League which exists" and "the league of make-believe, a cloud cuckoo
land, dreams of a millennium which we were not likely to reach for
many a long year to come; a league which was to maintain peace by
going to war whenever peace was disturbed. That sort of thing, if it
could exist, would be a danger to peace; it would be employed to ex-
tend war rather than to put an end to it. But dangerous or not, it did
not exist, and to pretend that it did exist was sheer stupidity."

Four days later, Hitler announced Germany's rearmament, and ten
days after that, Britain condoned the act by sending Sir John Simon on
a state visit to Berlin. When France tried to counterbalance Germany's
rearmament by bringing the Soviet Union into her eastern alliance
system in May 1935, the British counteracted this by making the Anglo-

270 / The Anglo-American Establishment

German Naval Agreement of 18 June 1935. This agreement, concluded
by Simon, allowed Germany to build up to 35 percent of the size of the
British Navy (and up to 100 percent in submarines) . This was a deadly
stab in the back to France, for it gave Germany a navy considerably
larger than the French in the important categories of ships (capital
ships and aircraft carriers) in the North Sea, because France was bound
by treaty in these categories to only 33 percent of Britain's; and France,
in addition, had a worldwide empire to protect and the unfriendly
Italian Navy off her Mediterranean coast. This agreement put the
French Atlantic coast so completely at the mercy of the German Navy
that France became completely dependent on the British fleet for pro-
tection in this area. Obviously, this protection would not be given
unless France in a crisis renounced her eastern allies. As if this were not
enough, Britain in March 1936 accepted the German remilitarization
of the Rhineland and in August 1936 began the farcical noninterven-
tion agreement in Spain, which put another unfriendly government on
France's remaining land frontier. Under such pressure, it was clear
that France would not honor her alliances with the Czechs, the Poles,
or the Russians, if they came due.

In these actions of March 1935 and March 1936, Hitler was running
no risk, for the government and the Milner Group had assured him
beforehand that it would accept his actions. This was done both in
public and in private, chiefly in the House of Commons and in the
articles of The Times. Within the Cabinet, Halifax, Simon, and Hoare
resisted the effort to form any alignment against Germany. The
authorized biographer of Halifax wrote in reference to Halifax's at-
titude in 1935 and 1936:

"Was England to allow herself to be drawn into war because France had
alliances in Eastern Europe? Was she to give Mussolini a free pass to Addis
Ababa merely to prevent Hitler marching to Vienna?" Questions similar
to these were undoubtedly posed by Halifax in Cabinet. His own friends,
in particular Lothian and Geoffrey Dawson of The Times, had for some
time been promoting Anglo-German fellowship with rather more fervour
than the Foreign Office. In January 1935 Lothian had a long conversation
with Hitler, and Hitler was reputed to have proposed an alliance between
England, Germany, and the United States which would in effect give
Germany a free hand on the Continent, in return for which he had prom-
ised not to make Germany "a world power" or to attempt to compete
with the British Navy. The Times consistently opposed the Eastern
Locarno and backed Hitler's non-aggression alternative. Two days before
the Berlin talks, for instance, it advocated that they should include terri-
torial changes, and in particular the question of Memel; while on the day
they began [March 1935] its leading article suggested that if Herr Hitler
can persuade his British visitors, and through them the rest of the world,
that his enlarged army is really designed to give them equality of status

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 271

and equality of negotiation with other countries, and is not to be trained
for aggressive purposes, then Europe may be on the threshold of an era in
which changes can be made without the use of force, and a potential ag-
gressor may be deterred by the certain prospect of having to face over-
whelming opposition! How far The Times and Lothian were arguing and
negotiating on the Government's behalf is still not clear, but that Halifax
was intimately acquainted with the trend of this argument is probable.

It goes without saying that the whole inner core of the Group, and
their chief publications, such as The Times and The Round Table, ap-
proved the policy of appeasement completely and prodded it along
with calculated indiscretions when it was felt necessary to do so. After
the remilitarization of the Rhineland, The Times cynically called this
act "a chance to rebuild." As late as 24 February 1938, in the House of
Lords, Lothian defended the same event. He said: "We hear a great
deal of the violation by Herr Hitler of the Treaty because he returned
his own troops to his own frontier. You hear much less today of the
violation by which the French Army, with the acquiescence of this
country, crossed the frontier in order to annihilate German industry
and in effect produced the present Nazi Party."

In the House of Commons in October 1935, and again on 6 May
1936, Amery systematically attacked the use of force to sustain the
League of Nations. On the earlier occasion he said:

From the very outset there have been two schools of thought about the
League and about our obligations under the League. There has been the
school, to which I belong and to which for years, I believe, the Govern-
ment of this country belonged, that regards the League as a great institu-
tion, an organization for promoting cooperation and harmony among the
nations, for bringing about understanding, a permanent Round Table of
the nations in conference . . . provided always that it did not have at the
background the threat of coercion. There is another school which thinks
that the actual Articles of the Covenant, concocted in the throes of the
peace settlement and in that atmosphere of optimism which led us to ex-
pect ten million pounds or more in reparations from Germany, constitute
a sacrosanct dispensation, that they have introduced a new world order,
and would, if they were only loyally adhered to, abolish war for good and
all. The Covenant, I admit, as originally drafted, embodied both aspects
and it was because the Covenant contained the Clauses that stood for
coercion and for definite automatic obligations that the United States . . .
repudiated it. From that moment the keystone was taken out of the whole
arch of any League of coercion. . . . The League is now undergoing a trial
which may well prove disastrous to it. In this matter, as in other matters,
it is the letter that killeth. The letter of the Covenant is the one thing
which is likely to kill the League of Nations.

Amery then continued with a brief resume of the efforts to make the
League an instrument of coercion, especially the Geneva Protocol. In

272 / The Anglo-American Establishment

regard to this, he continued: "The case I wish to put to the House is
that the stand taken by His Majesty's Government then and the
arguments they used were not arguments merely against the Protocol,
but arguments against the whole conception of a League based on
economic and military sanctions." He quoted Austen Chamberlain in
1925 and General Smuts in 1934 with approval, and concluded: "I
think that we should have got together with France and Italy and
devised some scheme by which under a condominium or mandate cer-
tain if not all of the non-Amharic provinces of Abyssinia should be
transferred to Italian rule. The whole thing could have been done by
agreement, and I have no doubt that such agreement would have been
Tatified at Geneva."

This last statement was more then seven weeks before the Hoare-
Laval Plan was made public, and six weeks after its outlines were laid
down by Hoare, Eden, and Laval at a secret meeting in Paris (10
September 1935).

In his speech of 6 May 1936, Amery referred back to his October
speech and demanded that the Covenant of the League be reformed to
prevent sanctions in the future. Once again he quoted Smuts's speech of
November 1934 with approval, and demanded "a League which is
based not upon coercion but upon conciliation."

Between Amery's two speeches, on 5 February 1936, Sir Arthur
Salter, of the Group and All Souls, offered his arguments to support ap-
peasement. He quoted Smuts's speech of 1934 with approval and
pointed out the great need for living space and raw materials for
Japan, Italy, and Germany. The only solution, he felt, was for Britain
to yield to these needs.

I do not think it matters [he said] if you reintroduce conscription and
quadruple or quintuple your Air Force. That will not protect you. I be-
lieve that the struggle is destined to come unless we are prepared to agree
to a fairer distribution of the world's land surface and of the raw materials
which are needed by modern civilized nations. But there is a way out;
there is no necessity for a clash. I am sure that time presses and that we
cannot postpone a settlement indefinitely. ... I suggest that the way out
is the application of those principles [of Christianity], the deliberate and
conscious application of those principles to international affairs by this
nation and by the world under the leadership of this nation. . . . Treat
other nations as you would desire to be treated by them.

The liquidation of the countries between Germany and Russia could
proceed as soon as the Rhineland was fortified, without fear on Ger-
many's part that France would be able to attack her in the west while
she was occupied in the east. The chief task of the Milner Group was to
see that this devouring process was done no faster than public opinion
in Britain could accept, and that the process did not result in any out-

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 273

burst of violence, which the British people would be unlikely to accept.
To this double purpose, the British government and the Milner Group
made every effort to restrain the use of force by the Germans and to
soften up the prospective victims so that they would not resist the pro-
cess and thus precipitate a war.

The countries marked for liquidation included Austria,
Czechoslovakia, and Poland, but did not include Greece and Turkey,
since the Group had no intention of allowing Germany to get down
onto the Mediterranean "lifeline". Indeed, the purpose of the Hoare-
Laval Plan of 1935, which wrecked the collective-security system by
seeking to give most of Ethiopia to Italy, was intended to bring an ap-
peased Italy into position alongside England, in order to block any
movement of Germany southward rather than eastward. The plan
failed because Mussolini decided that he could get more out of England
by threats from the side of Germany than from cooperation at the side
of England. As a result of this fiasco, the Milner Group lost another im-
portant member, Arnold J. Toynbee, who separated himself from the
policy of appeasement in a fighting and courageous preface to The
Survey of International Affairs for 1935 (published in 1936). As a result
of the public outcry in England, Hoare, the Foreign Secretary, was
removed from office and briefly shelved in December 1935. He re-
turned to the Cabinet the following May. Anthony Eden, who replaced
him, was not a member of the Milner Group and considerably more to
the public taste because of his reputation (largely undeserved) as an
upholder of collective security. The Milner Group was in no wise
hampered in its policy of appeasement by the presence of Eden in the
Foreign Office, and the government as a whole was considerably
strengthened. Whenever the Group wanted to do something which
Eden's delicate stomach could not swallow, the Foreign Secretary went
off for a holiday, and Lord Halifax took over his tasks. Halifax did this,
for example, during the first two weeks of August 1936, when the
nonintervention policy was established in Spain; he did it again in
February 1937, when the capable British Ambassador in Berlin, Sir
Eric Phipps, was removed at Ribbentrop's demand and replaced by Sir
Nevile Henderson; he did it again at the end of October 1937, when ar-
rangements were made for his visit to Hitler at Berchtesgaden in
November; and, finally, Halifax replaced Eden as Foreign Secretary
permanently in February 1938, when Eden refused to accept the
recognition of the Italian conquest of Ethiopia in return for an Italian
promise to withdraw their forces from Spain. In this last case, Halifax
was already negotiating with Count Grandi in the Foreign Office
before Eden's resignation statement was made. Eden and Halifax were
second cousins, both being great-grandsons of Lord Grey of the Reform
Bill of 1832, and Halifax's daughter in 1936 married the half-brother of

274 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Mrs. Anthony Eden. Halifax and Eden were combined in the Foreign
Office in order that the former could counterbalance the "youthful im-
petuosities" of the latter, since these might jeopardize appeasement but
were regarded as necessary stage-settings to satisfy the collective-
security yearnings of public opinion in England. These yearnings were
made evident in the famous "Peace Ballot" of the League of Nations
Union, a maneuver put through by Lord Cecil as a countermove to the
Group's slow undermining of collective security. This countermove,
which was regarded with extreme distaste by Lothian and others of the
inner circle, resulted, among other things, in an excessively polite
crossing of swords by Cecil and Lothian in the House of Lords on 16
March 1938.

During the period in which Halifax acted as a brake on Eden, he
held the sinecure Cabinet posts of Lord Privy Seal and Lord President
of the Council (1935-1938). He had been added to the Cabinet, after
his return from India in 1931, as President of the Board of Education,
but devoted most of his time from 1931 to 1935 in helping Simon and
Hoare put through the Government of India Act of 1935. In October
1933, the same group of Conservative members of Convocation who
had made Lord Milner Chancellor of Oxford University in 1925
selected Lord Irwin (Halifax), for the same position, in succession to
the late Lord Grey of Fallodon. He spent almost the whole month of
June 1934 in the active functions of this position, especially in drawing
up the list of recipients of honorary degrees. This list is very significant.
Among sixteen recipients of the Doctorate of Civil Law, we find the
following five names: Samuel Hoare, Maurice Hankey, W. G. S.
Adams, John Buchan, and Geoffrey Dawson.

We have indicated that Halifax's influence on foreign policy was in-
creasingly important in the years 1934-1937. It was he who defended
Hoare in the House of Lords in December 1935, saying: "I have never
been one of those . . . who have thought that it was any part in this
dispute of the League to try to stop a war in Africa by starting a war in
Europe. It was Halifax who went with Eden to Paris in March 1936 to
the discussions of the Locarno Powers regarding the remilitarization of
the Rhineland. That his task at this meeting was to act as a brake on
Eden's relatively large respect for the sanctity of international obliga-
tions is admitted by Lord Halifax's authorized biographer. It was
Halifax, as we have seen, who inaugurated the nonintervention policy
in Spain in August 1936. And it was Halifax who opened the third and
last stage of appeasement in November 1937 by his visit to Hitler in
Berchtesgaden.

It is probable that the groundwork for Halifax's visit to Hitler had
been laid by the earlier visits of Lords Lothian and Londonderry to the
same host, but our knowledge of these earlier events is too scanty to be

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 275

certain. Of Halifax's visit, the story is now clear, as a result of the
publication of the German Foreign Office memorandum on the subject
and Keith Feiling's publication of some of the letters from Neville
Chamberlain to his sister. The visit was arranged by Halifax himself,
early in November 1937, at a time when he was Acting Foreign
Secretary, Eden being absent in Brussels at a meeting of signers of the
Nine- Power Pacific Treaty of 1922. As a result, Halifax had a long con-
versation with Hitler on 19 November 1937 in which, whatever may
have been Halifax's intention, Hitler's government became convinced
of three things: (a) that Britain regarded Germany as the chief bulwark
against communism in Europe; (b) that Britain was prepared to join a
Four Power agreement of France, Germany, Italy, and herself; and (c)
that Britain was prepared to allow Germany to liquidate Austria,
Czechoslovakia, and Poland if this could be done without provoking a
war into which the British Government, however unwillingly, would
be dragged in opposition to Germany. The German Foreign Ministry
memorandum on this conversation makes it perfectly clear that the
Germans did not misunderstand Halifax except, possibly, on the last
point. There they failed to see that if Germany made war, the British
Government would be forced into the war against Germany by public
opinion in England. The German diplomatic agents in London,
especially the Ambassador, Dirksen, saw this clearly, but the Govern-
ment in Berlin listened only to the blind and conceited ignorance of
Ribbentrop. As dictators themselves, unfamiliar with the British social
or constitutional systems, the German rulers assumed that the will-
ingness of the British Government to accept the liquidation of Austria,
Czechoslovakia, and Poland implied that the British Government
would never go to war to prevent this liquidation. They did not see that
the British Government might have to declare war to stay in office if
public opinion in Britain were sufficiently aroused. The British
Government saw this difficulty and as a last resort were prepared to
declare war but not to wage war on Germany. This distinction was not
clear to the Germans and was not accepted by the inner core of the
Milner Group. It was, however, accepted by the other elements in the
government, like Chamberlain himself, and by much of the second cir-
cle of the Milner Group, including Simon, Hoare, and probably
Halifax. It was this which resulted in the "phony war" from September
1939 to April 1940.

The memorandum on Halifax's interview, quoting the Englishman
in the third person, says in part: 10

In spite of these difficulties [British public opinion, the English Church,
and the Labour Party] he and other members of the British Government
were fully aware that the Fiihrer had not only achieved a great deal inside

276 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Germany herself, but that, by destroying Communism in his country, he
had barred its road to Western Europe, and that Germany therefore
could rightly be regarded as a bulwark of the West against Bolshevism.
. . . After the ground had been prepared by an Anglo-German under-
standing, the four Great West-European Powers must jointly lay the
foundation for lasting peace in Europe. Under no conditions should any of
the four Powers remain outside this cooperation, or else there would be no
end to the present unstable situation. . . . Britons were realists and were
perhaps more than others convinced that the errors of the Versailles dic-
tate must be rectified. Britain always exercised her influence in this realis-
tic sense in the past. He pointed to Britain's role with regard to the evac-
uation of the Rhineland ahead of the fixed time, the settlement of the
reparations problem, and the reoccupation of the Rhineland. ... He
therefore wanted to know the Fiihrer's attitude toward the League of Na-
tions, as well as toward disarmament. All other questions could be
characterized as relating to changes in the European order, changes that
sooner or later would probably take place. To these questions belonged
Danzig, Austria, and Czechoslovakia. England was only interested that
any alterations should be effected by peaceful evolution, so as to avoid
methods which might cause far-reaching disturbances, which were not
desired either by the Fuhrer or by other countries. . . . Only one country,
Soviet Russia, stood to gain from a general conflict. All others were at
heart in favour of the consolidation of peace.

That this attitude was not Halifax's personal argument but the point
of view of the government (and of the Milner Group) is perfectly clear.
On arrival, Halifax assured the Germans that the purposes of his visit
had been discussed and accepted by the Foreign Secretary (Eden) and
the Prime Minister. On 26 November 1937, one week after Halifax's
conversation with Hitler, Chamberlain wrote to his sister that he
hoped to satisfy German colonial demands by giving them the Belgian
Congo and Angola in place of Tanganyika. He then added: "I don't see
why we shouldn't say to Germany, 'Give us satisfactory assurances that
you won't use force to deal with the Austrians and Czechoslovakians,
and we will give you similar assurances that we won't use force to pre-
vent the changes you want if you can get them by peaceful means.' ""

It might be noted that when John W. Wheeler-Bennett, of Chatham
House and the Milner Group, wrote his book on Munich: Prologue to
Tragedy, published in 1948, he relegated the last quotation to a foot-
note and suppressed the references to the Belgian Congo and Angola.
This, however, was an essential part of the appeasement program of
the Chamberlain group. On 3 March 1938, the British Ambassador in
Berlin, Nevile Henderson, one of the Chamberlain group, tried to per-
suade Hitler to begin negotiations to carry out this plan but did not suc-
ceed. He repeated Lord Halifax's statement that changes in Europe
were acceptable to Britain if accomplished without "the free play of

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 277

forces," and stated that he personally "had often expressed himself in
favour of the Anschluss." In the colonial field, he tried to interest Hitler
in an area in Africa between the 5th parallel and the Zambezi River,
but the Fiihrer insisted that his interest was restricted to restoration of
Germany's 1914 colonies in Africa.

At the famous interview between Hitler and Schuschnigg in Febru-
ary 1938, Hitler told the Austrian that Lord Halifax agreed "with
everything he [Hitler] did with respect to Austria and the Sudeten Ger-
mans." This was reported in a "rush and strictly confidential" message
of 16 February 1938 from the American Consul General in Vienna to
Secretary of State Hull, a document released to the American press on
18 December 1948. Chamberlain and others made it perfectly clear,
both in public and in private, that Britain would not act to prevent
German occupation of Austria or Czechoslovakia. On 21 February
1938, during the Austrian crisis, John Simon said in the House of Com-
mons, "Great Britain has never given special guarantees regarding
Austrian independence." Six days later, Chamberlain said: "We must
not try to delude small nations into thinking that they will be protected
by the League against aggression and acting accordingly when we
know that nothing of the kind can be expected." Five days after the
seizure of Austria on 12 March 1938, the Soviet Union sent Britain a
proposal for an international conference to stop aggression. The sug-
gestion was rejected at once, and, on 20 March 1938, Chamberlain
wrote to his sister: "I have therefore abandoned any idea of giving
guarantees to Czechoslovakia or to the French in connection with her
obligation to that country."

When Daladier, the French Premier, came to London at the end of
April 1938 to seek support for Czechoslovakia, Chamberlain refused
and apparently, if we can believe Feiling, put pressure on the French
to compel the Czechoslovaks to make an agreement with Hitler. On 1
May, Chamberlain wrote to his sister in this connection: "Fortunately
the papers have had no hint of how near we came to a break over
Czechoslovakia . "

In a long report of 10 July 1938, Ambassador Dirksen wrote to Rib-
bentrop as follows:

In England the Chamberlain-Halifax Cabinet is at the helm and the first
and most essential plank of its platform was and is agreement with the
totalitarian States. . . . This government displays with regard to Germany
the maximum understanding that could be displayed by any of the likely
combinations of British politicians. It possesses the inner-political strength
to carry out this task. It has come nearer to understanding the most essen-
tial points of the major demands advanced by Germany, with respect to
excluding the Soviet Union from the decision of the destinies of Europe,
the League of Nations likewise, and the advisability of bilateral negotia-

278 / The Anglo-American Establishment

tions and treaties. It is displaying increasing understanding of Germany's
demands in the Sudeten German question. It would be prepared to make
great sacrifices to meet Germany's other just demands — on the one condi-
tion that it is endeavoured to achieve these ends by peaceful means. If
Germany should resort to military means to achieve these ends, England
would without the slightest doubt go to war on the side of France.

This point of view was quite acceptable to the Milner Group. In the
leading article for December 1937, The Round Table examined the
German question at some length. In regard to the colonial problem, it
contrasted two points of view, giving greater emphasis to "those who
now feel that it was a mistake to have deprived Germany of all her
colonies in 1918, and that Great Britain should contribute her share
towards finding a colonial area — say, in central west Africa — which
could be transferred to Germany under mandate. But they, too, make
it a condition that colonial revision should be part of a final all-round
settlement with Germany, and that the colonies should not be used as
leverage for fresh demands or as strategic bases." Later it said: "A ma-
jority would regard the abandonment of France's eastern alliances as a
price well worth paying for lasting peace and the return of Germany to
the League." It welcomed German rearmament, since this would force
revision of the evil Treaty of Versailles. In this connection, the same ar-
ticle said: "The pressure of rearmament and the events of the last few
years have at least had this effect, that the refusal of those who have
benefited most by the peace settlement to consider any kind of change
is rapidly disappearing; for forcible changes which they have been
unable to prevent have already taken place, and further changes will
certainly follow, especially in eastern Europe, unless they are prepared
to fight a very formidable war to prevent them." The article rejected
such a war on the grounds that its "outcome is uncertain" and it "would
entail objectionable domestic disasters." In adding up the balance of
military forces in such a war, the article significantly omitted all men-
tion of Czechoslovakia, whose forces at that time were considerably
stronger than Germany's. It placed the French Army at two-thirds the
size of Germany's (which was untrue) and Britain at no more than two
or three divisions. The point of view of The Round Table was not iden-
tical with that of the Chamberlain group (which intersected, through
common members, with the second circle of the Milner Group). The
Round Table, speaking for the inner circle of the Milner Group, was
not nearly so anti-Russian as the Chamberlain group. Accordingly, it
never regarded a collision between Nazi Germany and the Soviet
Union as a practical solution of Europe's problems. It did accept the
idea of a four-power pact to exclude Russia from Europe, but it was not
willing to allow Germany to expand eastward as she wished. The

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 279

Milner Group's misunderstanding of the Nazi system and of Germany
itself was so great that they envisioned a stable situation in which
Europe was dominated by a four-power pact, with Soviet Russia on
one side and an Oceanic bloc of the British Commonwealth and the
United States on the other. The Group insisted on rapid British rear-
mament and the building up of the Oceanic System because they had a
lower opinion of Britain's own powers than did the Chamberlain group
(this idea was derived from Milner) and they were not prepared to
allow Germany to go eastward indefinitely in the hope she would be
satisfied by a war with Russia. As we shall see, the policies of the
Milner Group and the Chamberlain group went jointly forward, with
slight shifts of emphasis, until March 1939, when the Group began to
disintegrate.

In the same article of December 1937 The Round Table said that the
democracies must

make clear the point at which they are prepared to risk war rather than
retreat. . . . During the last year or two The Round Table has criticized
the popular dogma of "collective security" on two main grounds: that it
meant fighting to maintain an out-of-date settlement, and that security
depended, not merely on public opinion but on ability to bring effective
military superiority to bear at the critical point. On the other hand, The
Round Table is resolutely in favour of adequate defensive armaments and
of a vigorous and if necessary defiant foreign policy at those points where
we are sure that ... we can bring superior power effectively to bear. And
for this purpose we consider that the nations of the Commonwealth
should not only act together themselves, but should also work in the
closest cooperation with all the democracies, especially the United States.

In February 1938, Lord Lothian, "leader" of the Group, spoke in the
House of Lords in support of appeasement. This extraordinary speech
was delivered in defense of the retiring of Sir Robert Vansittart. Sir
Robert, as Permanent Under Secretary in the Foreign Office from 1930
to 1938, was a constant thorn in the side of the appeasers. The opening
of the third stage of appeasement at the end of 1937 made it necessary
to get rid of him and his objections to their policy. Accordingly, he was
"promoted" to the newly created post of Chief Diplomatic Adviser, and
the Under Secretaryship was given to Sir Alexander Cadogan of the
Cecil Bloc. This action led to a debate in February 1938. Lord Lothian
intervened to insist that Sir Robert's new role would not be parallel to
that of the new Under Secretary but was restricted to advising only on
"matters specifically referred to him by the Secretary of State, and he is
no longer responsible for the day to day work of the Office." From this
point, Lothian launched into a long attack on the League of Nations,
followed by a defense of Germany. In regard to the former, he ex-
pressed satisfaction that

280 / The Anglo-American Establishment

the most dangerous aspect of the League of Nations — namely, the inter-
pretation which has habitually been put upon it by the League of Nations
Union in this country — is pretty well dead. ... It seems to me that that
[interpretation] is inevitably going to turn the League of Nations itself not
into an instrument for maintaining peace but into an instrument for
making war. That was not the original concept of the League at all. The
original concept of the League definitely left the way open for alteration
after six months' examination even if it meant war. ... I think the League
of Nations now, at last, is going to have a chance of recovery, for the
reason that this particular interpretation, which has been its besetting sin,
the one thing which has led to its failure from the beginning, is now dead.
. . . Therefore I am more hopeful of the League today than I have been for
a good long time, because it has ceased to be an instrument to try to per-
petuate the status quo.

When Lothian turned to the problem of Germany, his arguments
became even more ridiculous. "The fundamental problem of the world
today is still the problem of Germany. . . . Why is Germany the issue?
In my view the fundamental reason is that at no time in the years after
1919 has the rest of the world been willing to concede any substantial
justice or reasonable understanding to Germany, either when she was a
Republic or since she has become a Totalitarian State." There followed
a long attack on the war guilt thesis as applied to 1914, or even to 1870.
This thesis Lothian called "propaganda," and from this false propa-
ganda he traced all the cruel treatment given Germany since 1919. He
disapproved of the Nazi Government's methods inside Germany, but
added: "I do not think there is any doubt that modern Germany is the
result of the policy of the United States, whom I cannot absolve from
responsibility, of ourselves, and of France; and in this matter the
responsibility of the United States and ourselves is more than that of
France for defaulting on the obligation to give France some security so
that she could allow Germany to recover."

It seems impossible that this could be the same man who was calling
for the extirpation of "Prussianism" in 1908-1918 and who was to call
for the same crusade as Ambassador in Washington in 1940.

In this same speech Lothian laid down what might be called the
Milner Group solution to this German problem, 1938 model:

There is only one solution to this problem. You have got to combine col-
lective justice with collective security. You have got to give remedies to
those nations which are entitled to them. . . . You have got to be willing to
concede to them — and one of them is Germany — alterations in the status
quo and you have also got to incur obligations with other like-minded
nations to resist changes which go beyond what impartial justice regards
as fair. . . . When we are willing to admit that we are ourselves largely re-
sponsible for the tragedy that confronts us, for the fact that Germany is
the center of the world problem, and are willing to concede to Germany

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 281

what a fair-minded and impartial authority would say was a fair solution
of her problem, and if, in addition to that, we are willing to say, "We will
meet aggression to secure more than this with the only means in which it
can be met," then I consider there is hope for the world.

The fallacy in all of this rests on the fact that every concession to
Germany made her stronger, with no guarantee that she ever would
stop; and if, after years of concessions, she refused to stop, she might be
too strong to be compelled to do so. The Milner Group thesis was based
not only on ignorance but also on logical deficiencies. The program of
the Chamberlain group was at least more consistent, since it involved
no effort to stop Germany at any point but aimed to solve the German
problem by driving it into Russia. Such an "immoral" solution could
not be acceptable to the Milner Group, so they should have had sense
enough to stop Germany while she was weak.

Shortly after this speech, on 24 February 1938, Lothian intervened
in the debate on Eden's resignation to reject Eden's point of view and
defend Chamberlain's. He rejected the idea that Britain should commit
herself to support Czechoslovakia against Germany and criticized the
President of Czechoslovakia for his failure to make concessions to
Republican Germany. He then repeated his speech of the week before,
the chief addition being a defense of the German remilitarization of the
Rhineland in March 1936.

Four days after the seizure of Austria, Lothian again advised against
any new pledges to anyone and demanded rearmament and national
service. In regard to rearmament he said: "Unpreparedness and the
belief that you are unwilling to accept that challenge or that you do not
mean what you say, does contribute to war. That will remain to be a
condition of the world until the nations are willing in some way to pool
their sovereignty in a common federation."

All of these ideas of Lothian's were explictly restated by him in a
speech at Chatham House on 24 March 1938. He refuted the "war-guilt
thesis," condemned the Versailles settlement as "a very stiff Peace
Treaty," insisted on revision, blamed all the disasters of Europe on
America's withdrawal from the League in 1920, called the Hitler
government a temporary "unnatural pathological state" solely caused
by the stiff treaty and the failure to revise it, defended the remilitariza-
tion of the Rhineland and the seizure of Austria, condemned
Czechoslovakia as "almost the only racially heterogeneous State left in
Europe," praised "nonintervention" in Spain, praised Chamberlain's
statement of the same day refusing to promise support to
Czechoslovakia, and demanded "national service" as insurance that
Hitler would not continue to use force after he obtained what he
deserved in justice.

These arguments of Lothian's were all supported by the Group in

282 / The Anglo-American Establishment

other ways. The Round Table in its leading articles of March 1938,
September 1938, and March 1939 demanded "national service." In the
leading article of June 1938 it repeated all Lothian's arguments in
somewhat different words. These arguments could be summed up in
the slogan "appeasement and rearmament." Then it added:

Until the nations can be brought to the two principles of collective secu-
rity already described, the best security for peace is that the world should
be divided into zones within each of which one of the great armed
Powers, or a group of them, is clearly preponderant, and in which there-
fore other Powers do not seek to interfere. Then theTe may be peace for a
time. The peace of the 19th century rested on the fact that the supremacy
of the British Navy kept the whole oceanic area free from general war.
. . . The vital question now arises whether in that same zone, to which
France and Scandinavia must be added, it is not possible, despite the im-
mense armaments of central Europe, Russia, and the Far East, for the
democracies to create security, stability, and peace in which liberal insti-
tutions can survive. The oceanic zone in fact constitutes the one part of the
world in which it is possible today to realise the ideals of the League of
Nations.

From this point onward (early 1938), the Milner Group increasingly
emphasized the necessity for building up this Oceanic bloc. In England
the basic propaganda work was done through The Round Table and
Lionel Curtis, while in the United States it was done through the
Rhodes Scholarship organization, especially through Clarence Streit
and Frank Aydelotte. In England, Curtis wrote a series of books and
articles advocating a new federal organization built around the
English-speaking countries. The chief work of this nature was his
Civitas Dei, which appeared in three volumes in 1934-1937. A one-
volume edition was issued in 1938, with the title The Commonwealth
oj God. The first two volumes of this work are nothing more than a
rehash and expansion of the older work The Commonwealth of Nations
(1916). By a superficial and frequently erroneous rewriting of world
history, the author sought to review the evolution of the "com-
monwealth" idea and to show that all of history leads to its fulfillment
and achievement in federation. Ultimately, this federation will be
worldwide, but en route it must pass through stages, of which the chief
is federation of the English-speaking peoples. Writing early in 1937, he
advocated that the League of Nations be destroyed by the mass resigna-
tion of the British democracies. These should then take the initiative in
forming a new league, also at Geneva, which would have no power to
enforce anything but would merely form a kind of international con-
ference. Since it would be foolish to expect any federation to evolve
from any such organization as this, a parallel, but quite separate, effort
should be made to create an international commonwealth, based on

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 283

the example of the United States in 1788. This international com-
monwealth would differ from the League of Nations in that its
members would yield up part of their sovereignty, and the central
organization would function directly on individuals and not merely on
states. This international commonwealth would be formed, at first,
only of those states that have evolved furthest in the direction of ob-
taining a commonwealth form of government for themselves. It will be
recalled that this restriction on membership was what Curtis had
originally advocated for the League of Nations in The Round Table of
December 1918. According to Curtis, the movement toward the Com-
monwealth of God can begin by the union of any two national com-
monwealths, no matter how small. He suggested New Zealand and
Australia, or these two and Great Britain. Then the international com-
monwealth could be expanded to include India, Egypt, Holland,
Belgium, Scandinavia, France, Canada, the United States, and
Ireland. That the chief obstacle to this union was to be found in men's
minds was perfectly clear to Curtis. To overcome this obstacle, he put
his faith in propaganda, and the chief instruments of that propaganda,
he said, must be the churches and the universities. He said nothing
about the Milner Group, but, considering Curtis's position in this
Group and that Lothian and others agreed with him, it is not surpris-
ing that the chief source of this propaganda is to be found in those
agencies controlled by the Group. 12

In the United States, the chief source of this propaganda was the
organization known as Union Now, which was an offshoot of the
Rhodes Scholarship network. The publicized originator of the idea was
Clarence Streit, Rhodes Scholar at Oxford in 1920 and League of Na-
tions correspondent of The New York Times in 1929-1938. Mr. Streit's
plan, which was very similar to Curtis's, except that it included fifteen
countries to begin with, was first made public at a series of three lec-
tures at Swarthmore College in February 1939. Almost simultaneously
his book, Union Now, was launched and received wide publicity.
Before we look at that, we might mention that at the time the president
of Swarthmore College was Frank Aydelotte, the most important
member of the Milner Group in the United States since the death of
George Louis Beer. Dr. Aydelotte was one of the original Rhodes
Scholars, attending Brasenose in 1905-1907. He was president of
Swarthmore from 1921 to 1940; has been American secretary to the
Rhodes Trustees since 1918; has been president of the Association of
American Rhodes Scholars since 1930; has been a trustee of the
Carnegie Foundation since 1922; and was a member of the Council on
Foreign Relations for many years. In 1937, along with three other
members of the Milner Group, he received from Oxford (and Lord
Halifax) the honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Law. The other three

284 / The Anglo-American Establishment

recipients who were members of the Group were Brand, Ormsby-
Gore, and Sir Herbert Baker, the famous architect.

As soon as Streit's book was published, it was hailed by Lord Lothian
in an interview with the press. Shortly afterwards, Lothian gave it a
favorable review in the Christian Science Monitor of 6 May 1939. The
book was distributed to educational institutions in various places by
the Carnegie Foundation and was greeted in the June 1939 issue of The
Round Table as "the only way." This article said: "There is, indeed, no
other cure. ... In The Commonwealth oj God Mr. Lionel Curtis
showed how history and religion pointed down the same path. It is one
of the great merits of Mr. Streit's book that he translates the general
theme into a concrete plan, which he presents, not for the indefinite
hereafter, but for our own generation, now." In the September 1939
issue, in an article headed "Union: Oceanic or Continental," The
Round Table contrasted Streit's plan with that for European union of-
fered by Count Coudenhove-Kalergi and gave the arguments for both.

While all this was going on, the remorseless wheels of appeasement
were grinding out of existence one country after another. The fatal loss
was Czechoslovakia. This disaster was engineered by Chamberlain
with the full cooperation of the Milner Group. The details do not con-
cern us here, but it should be mentioned that the dispute arose over the
position of the Sudeten Germans within the Czechoslovak state, and as
late as 15 September 1938 was still being expressed in those terms. Up
to that day, Hitler had made no demand to annex the Sudeten area,
although on 12 September he had for the first time asked for "self-
determination" for the Sudetens. Konrad Henlein, Hitler's agent in
Czechoslovakia and leader of the Sudeten Germans, expressed no
desire "to go back to the Reich" until after 12 September. Who, then,
first demanded frontier rectification in favor of Germany?
Chamberlain did so privately on 10 May 1938, and the Milner Group
did so publicly on 7 September 1938. The Chamberlain suggestion was
made by one of those "calculated indiscretions" of which he was so
fond, at an "off-the-record" meeting with certain Canadian and
American newspaper reporters at a luncheon arranged by Lady Astor
and held at her London house. On this occasion Chamberlain spoke of
his plans for a four-power pact to exclude Russia from Europe and the
possibility of frontier revisions in favor of Germany to settle the
Sudeten issue. When the news leaked out, as it was bound to do,
Chamberlain was questioned in Commons by Geoffrey Mander on 20
June but refused to answer, calling his questioner a troublemaker. This
answer was criticized by Sir Archibald Sinclair the following day, but
he received no better treatment. Lady Astor, however, interjected, "I
would like to say that there is not a word of truth in it." By 27 June,
however, she had a change of heart and stated: "I never had any inten-

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 285

tion of denying that the Prime Minister had attended a luncheon at my
house. The Prime Minister did so attend, the object being to enable
some American journalists who had not previously met him to do so
privately and informally, and thus to make his acquaintance."

The second suggestion for revision of frontiers also had an Astor
flavor, since it appeared as a leading article in The Times on 7
September 1938. The outraged cries of protest from all sides which
greeted this suggestion made it clear that further softening up of the
British public was urgently necessary before it would be safe to hand
over Czechoslovakia to Hitler. This was done in the war-scare of
September 15-28 in London. That this war-scare was fraudulent and
that Lord Halifax was deeply involved in its creation is now clear. All
the evidence cannot be given here. There is no evidence whatever that
the Chamberlain government intended to fight over Czechoslovakia
unless this was the only alternative to falling from office. Even at the
height of the crisis, when all ways out without war seemed closed (27
September), Chamberlain showed what he thought of the case by
telling the British people over the BBC that the issue was "a quarrel in a
far-away country between people of whom we know nothing."

To frighten the British people, the British government circulated
stories about the strength of the German Army and Air Force which
were greatly exaggerated; they implied that Germany would use
poison gas at once and from the air, although this was quite untrue;
they distributed gas masks and madly built trenches in London parks,
although the former were needless and the latter worthless. On 23
September, the British advised the Czechoslovakian government to
mobilize, although they had previously forbidden it. This was done to
increase the crisis in London, and the fact that Goring's air force al-
lowed it to go through without attack indicates his belief that Germany
did not need to fight. In fact, Goring told the French Ambassador on
12 September that he had positive assurance that Britain would not
fight. As early as 1 September 1938, Sir Horace Wilson, Chamberlain's
alter ego, told the German charge d'affaires in London, Theodor
Kordt, "If we two, Great Britain and Germany, come to agreement
regarding the settlement of the Czech problem, we shall simply brush
aside the resistance that France or Czechoslovakia herself may offer to
the decision."

The fraudulent nature of the Munich crisis appears throughout its
history. We might mention the following: (1) the suspicious fashion in
which the Bunciman Mission was sent to Czechoslovakia, immediately
after Hitler's aide, Captain Wiedemann, visited Halifax at the latter's
home (not the Foreign Office) on 18 July 1938, and with the statement,
which was untrue, that it was being sent at the desire of the
Czechoslovaks; 13 (2) the fact that Runciman in Czechoslovakia spent

286 / The Anglo-American Establishment

most of his time with the Sudetens and put pressure on the government
to make one concession after another to Henlein, when it was perfectly
clear that Henlein did not want a settlement; (3) the fact that
Runciman wrote to Hitler on 2 September that he would have a plan
for a settlement by 15 September; (4) the fact that this Runciman plan
was practically the same as the Munich settlement finally adopted; (5)
the fact that Chamberlain made the war-scare over the Godesberg pro-
posals and, after making a settlement at Munich, made no effort to en-
force those provisions by which Munich differed from Godesberg, but
on the contrary allowed the Germans to take what they wished in
Czechoslovakia as they wished; (6) the fact that the government did all
it could to exclude Russia from the settlement, although Russia was
allied to both Czechoslovakia and France; (7) the fact that the govern-
ment and the French government tried to spread the belief that Russia
would not honor these commitments, although all the evidence in-
dicated that she would; (8) the fact that Chamberlain had a tete-a-tete
conference with Hitler at Berchtesgaden on 15 September, which
lasted for three hours, and at which only Hitler's private interpreter
was present as a third party, and that this was repeated at Godesberg
on 23 September; (9) the fact that the Czechoslovaks were forced to
yield to Chamberlain's settlement under pressure of ultimatums from
both France and Britain, a fact that was concealed from the British
people by omitting a crucial document from the White Paper of 28
September 1938 (Cmd. 5847).

Two additional points, concerned with the degree of German ar-
maments and the position of the anti-Hitler resistance within Ger-
many, require further elucidation. For years before June 1938, the
government had insisted that British rearming was progressing in a
satisfactory fashion. Churchill and others had questioned this and had
produced figures on German rearmament to prove that Britain's own
progress in this field was inadequate. These figures were denied by the
government, and their own accomplishments were defended. In 1937
and in 1938, Churchill had clashed with Baldwin and Chamberlain on
this issue. As late as March 1938, Chamberlain said that British ar-
maments were such as to make her an "almost terrifying power ... on
the opinion of the world." But as the year went on, the government
adopted a quite different attitude. In order to persuade public opinion
that it was necessary to yield to Germany, the Government pretended
that its armaments were quite inadequate in comparison with Ger-
many." We now know, thanks to the captured papers of the German
Ministry of War, that this was a gross exaggeration. These papers were
studied by Major General C. F. Robinson of the United States Army,
and analyzed in a report which he submitted to the Secretary of War in
October 1947. This document, entitled Foreign Logistical Organiza-

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 287

tions and Methods, shows that all of the accepted estimates of German
rearmament in the period 1933-1939 were gross exaggerations. From
1936 to the outbreak of war, German aircraft production was not
raised, but averaged 425 planes a month. Her tank production was low
and even in 1939 was less than Britain's. In the first 9 months of 1939,
Germany produced only 50 tanks a month; in the last 4 months of
1939, in wartime, Germany produced 247 "tanks and self-propelled
guns," compared to a British production of 314 tanks in the same
period. At the time of the Munich crisis, Germany had 35 infantry and
4 motorized divisions, none of them fully manned or equipped. This
was no more than Czechoslovakia had alone. Moreover, the Czech
Army was better trained, had far better equipment, and had better
morale and better fortifications. As an example of this point, we might
mention that the Czech tank was of 38 tons, while the Germans, before
1938, had no tank over 10 tons. During 1938 they brought into produc-
tion the Mark III tank of less than 20 tons, and in 1939 brought into
production the Mark IV of 23 tons. Up to September 1939, the German
Army had obtained only 300 tanks of the Mark III and Mark IV types
together. Most of these were delivered during 1939. In comparison, the
Germans captured in Czechoslovakia, in March 1939, 469 of the
superior Czech tanks. At the same time they captured 1500 planes (of
which 500 were first-line), 43,000 machineguns, and over 1 million
rifles. These figures are comparable with what Germany had at
Munich, and at that time, if the British government had desired, Ger-
many would have been facing France, Britain, and Russia, as well as
Czechoslovakia .

It should perhaps be mentioned that up to September 1939 the Ger-
man Navy had acquired only 53 submarines during the Hitler regime.
No economic mobilization for war had been made and no reserve
stocks built up. When the war began, in September 1939, Germany
had ammunition for 6 weeks, and the air force had bombs for 3 months
at the rate of expenditure experienced during the Polish campaign. At
that time the Air Force consisted of 1000 bombers and 1050 fighters. In
contrast, the British air program of May 1938 planned to provide Brit-
ain with a first-line force of 2370 planes; this program was stepped up
in 1939. Under it, Britain produced almost 3000 military planes in
1938 and about 8000 in 1939. The German figures for planes produced
in these 2 years are 5235 and 8295, but these are figures for all planes
produced in the country, including civil as well as military airplanes.
As Hanson Baldwin put it, "Up until 1940, at least, Germany's produc-
tion did not markedly outstrip Britain's." It might also be mentioned
that British combat planes were of better quality.

We have no way of knowing if the Chamberlain government knew
these facts. It should have known them. At the least, it should not have

288 / The Anglo-American Establishment

deluged its own people with untrue stories about German arms. Sur-
prisingly, the British have generally refused to modify these stories,
and, in order to perpetuate the fable about the necessity for the Munich
surrender, they have continued to repeat the untrue propaganda stories
of 1937-1939 regarding German armaments. This is as true of the
critics of Munich as of its defenders. Both have adopted the version that
Britain yielded to superior and overwhelming force at Munich. They
have done this even though this story is untrue and they are in a posi-
tion to know that it is untrue. For example, Winston Churchill, in his
war memoirs, repeats the old stories about German rearmament,
although he has been writing two years or more after the Reichswehr
archives were captured. For this he was criticized by Hanson Baldwin
in The New York Times of 9 May 1948. In his recent book, Munich:
Prologue to Tragedy, J. W. Wheeler-Bennett, the British editor of the
captured papers of the German Foreign Ministry, accepts the old prop-
aganda tales of German rearmament as axiomatic, and accordingly
does not even discuss the subject. He merely tells his readers: "By the
close of 1937 Germany's preparedness for war was complete. The
preference for guns rather than for butter had brought forth results.
Her rearmament had reached its apogee and could hold that peak level
for a certain time. Her economy was geared to a strict regime of ration-
ing and output on a war level." None of this was true, and Mr.
Wheeler-Bennett should have examined the evidence. If he had, he
would not have been so severe on what he calls Professor Frederick
Schumann's "fantastic theory of the 'Pre-Munich Plot.' " 14

The last piece of evidence which we might mention to support the
theory — not of a plot, perhaps, but that the Munich surrender was un-
necessary and took place because Chamberlain and his associates
wanted to dismember Czechoslovakia — is even more incriminating. As
a result of the inadequate rearmament of Germany, a group of conser-
vatives within the regime formed a plot to liquidate Hitler and his close
supporters if it appeared that his policy in Czechoslovakia would result
in war. This group, chiefly army officers, included men on the highest
level of government. In the group were Colonel General Ludwig Beck
(Chief of the General Staff), Field Marshal von Witzleben, General
Georg Thomas, Carl Friedrich Goerdeler (Mayor of Leipzig in
1930-1936), Ulrich von Hassell (ex- Ambassador to Italy), Johannes
Popitz (Prussian Minister of Finance), and Paul Schmidt (Hitler's
private interpreter). This group formed a plot to kill Hitler and remove
the Nazis from power. The date was set eventually for 28 September
1938. Lord Halifax, on 5 September 1938, was informed of the plot by
Theodore Kordt, the German charge d'affaires in London, whose
brother, Erich Kordt, chief of Ribbentrop's office in the Foreign
Ministry, was one of the conspirators. The message which Kordt gave

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 289

to Halifax begged the British government to stand fast with
Czechoslovakia in the Sudeten crisis and to make perfectly clear that
Britain would go to war if Germany violated Czechoslovakian ter-
ritory. The plot was canceled at noon on 28 September, when the news
reached Berlin that Chamberlain was going to Munich. It was this plot
which eventually, after many false starts, reached fruition in the
attempt to assassinate Hitler on 20 July 1944.

There can be little doubt that the Milner Group knew of these anti-
Nazi plots within Germany. Several of the plotters were former Rhodes
Scholars and were in touch with members of the inner circle of the
Milner Group in the period up to 1943, if not later. One of the leaders
of the anti-Hitler plotters in Germany, Helmuth von Moltke, was prob-
ably a member of the Milner Group as well as intellectual leader of
the conspirators in Germany. Count von Moltke was the son of the
German commander of 1914 and grandnephew of the German com-
mander of 1870. His mother, Dorothy Rose-Innes, was the daughter of
Sir James Rose-Innes, whom Milner made Chief Justice of the
Transvaal in 1902. Sir James was a supporter of Rhodes and had been
Attorney General in Rhodes's ministry in 1890. He was Chief Justice of
South Africa in 1914-1927 and was always close to the Milner Group.
The von Moltkes were Christian Scientists, and Dorothy, as Countess
von Moltke after 1905, was one of the persons who translated Mary
Baker Eddy's Science and Health into German. The younger Helmuth,
son of Dorothy, and Count von Moltke after his father's death in 1938,
was openly anti-Nazi and came to England in 1934 to join the English
bar. He visited Lionel Curtis, at his mother's suggestion, and "was
made a member of the family, rooms in Duke of York Street being put
at his disposal, and Kidlington and All Souls thrown open to him at
week-ends; the opportunities of contact which these brought with
them were exploited to the full. . . . He was often in England until the
summer of 1939, and in 1937 visited South Africa and the grandparents
there to whom he was deeply attached." This quotation, from The
Round Table for June 1946, makes perfectly clear to those who can
read between the lines that Moltke became a member of the Milner
Group. It might be added that Curtis also visited the Rose-Innes family
in South Africa while Helmuth was there in 1937.

Von Moltke kept in close contact with both Curtis and Lothian even
after the war began in 1939. He was made adviser on international law
to the Supreme Command of the German Armed Forces (OKW) in
1939 and retained this position until his arrest in 1944. The intellectual
leader of the German Underground, he was the inspiration and ad-
dressee of Dorothy Thompson's book Listen, Hans. He was the center
of a group of plotters called the "Kreisau Circle," named after his estate
in Silesia. After his execution by the Nazis in January 1945, his connec-

290 / The Anglo-American Establishment

tion with the Milner Group was revealed, to those able to interpret the
evidence, in the June 1946 issue of The Round Table. This article ex-
tolled Moltke and reprinted a number of his letters. The same article,
with an additional letter, was published as a pamphlet in Johannes-
burg in 1947. 1S

Another plotter who appears to be close to the Milner Group was
Adam von Trott zu Solz, a Rhodes Scholar who went to the Far East on
a mission for the Rhodes Trust in 1936 and was in frequent contact
with the Institute of Pacific Relations in the period 1936-1939. He
seems to have attended a meeting of the Pacific Council in New York
late in 1939, coming from Germany, by way of Gibraltar, after the
war began. He remained in contact with the democratic countries until
arrested and executed by the Nazis in 1944. It is not without
significance that one of the chief projects which the plotters hoped to
further in post-Hitler German foreign policy was a "federation of
Europe in a commonwealth not unlike the British Empire." 16

All of this evidence and much more would seem to support the
theory of a "Munich plot" — that is, the theory that the British govern-
ment had no intention or desire to save Czechoslovakia in 1938 and was
willing or even eager to see it partitioned by Hitler, and only staged the
war scare of September in order to make the British people accept this
abuse of honor and sacrifice of Britain's international position. The ef-
forts which the British government made after Munich to conceal the
facts of that affair would support this interpretation. The chief ques-
tion, from our point of view, lies in the degree to which the Milner
Group were involved in this "plot." There can be no doubt that the
Chamberlain group was the chief factor in the scheme. There is also no
doubt that various members of the Milner Group second circle, who
were close to the Chamberlain group, were involved. The position of
the inner core of the Milner Group is not conclusively established, but
there is no evidence that they were not involved and a certain amount
of evidence that they were involved.

Among this latter evidence is the fact that the inner core of the
Group did not object to or protest against the partition of
Czechoslovakia, although they did use the methods by which Hitler
had obtained his goal as an argument in support of their pet plan for
national service. They prepared the ground for the Munich surrender
both in The Times and in The Round Table. In the June 1938 issue of
the latter, we read: "Czechoslovakia is apparently the danger spot of
the next few months. It will require high statesmanship on all sides to
find a peaceful and stable solution of the minorities problem. The
critical question for the next six months is whether the four great
Powers represented by the Franco-British entente and the Rome-Berlin
axis can make up their minds that they will not go to war with one

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 291

another and that they must settle outstanding problems by agreement
together." In this statement, three implications are of almost equal im-
portance. These are the time limit of "six months," the exclusion of
both Czechoslovakia and Russia from the "agreement," and the ap-
proval of the four-power pact.

In the September 1938 issue of The Round Table, published on the
eve of Munich, we are told: "It is one thing to be able, in the end, to
win a war. It is a far better thing to be able to prevent a war by a
readiness for just dealing combined with resolute strength when in-
justice is threatened." Here, as always before 1939, The Round Table
by "justice" meant appeasement of Germany.

After the dreadful deed was done, The Round Table had not a word
of regret and hardly a kind word for the great sacrifice of the Czechs or
for the magnificent demonstration of restraint which they had given
the world. In fact, the leading article in the December 1938 issue of
The Round Table began with a severe criticism of Czechoslovakia for
failure to reconcile her minorities, for failure to achieve economic
cooperation with her neighbors, and for failure to welcome a Hapsburg
restoration. From that point on, the article was honest. While accept-
ing Munich, it regarded it solely as a surrender to German power and
rejected the arguments that it was done by negotiation, that it was a
question of self-determination or minority rights, or that Munich was
any better or more lenient than the Godesberg demands. The following
article in the same issue, also on Czechoslovakia, is a tissue of untruths
except for the statement that there never was any real Sudeten issue,
since the whole thing was a fraudulent creation engineered from Ger-
many. Otherwise the article declares categorically: (1) that Czecho-
slovakia could not have stood up against Hitler more than two or three
weeks; (2) that no opposition of importance to Hitler existed in
Germany ("A good deal has been written about the opposition of the
military commanders. But in fact it does not and never did exist."); (3)
"There is no such thing as a conservative opposition in Germany." In
the middle of such statements as these, one ray of sanity shines like a
light: in a single sentence, The Round Table tossed onto the scrap heap
its basic argument in support of appeasement, namely the "injustices
of Versailles." The sentence reads: "It is not Versailles but defeat that is
the essential German grievance against the western Powers." This
sentence should have been printed in gold letters in the Foreign Office
in London in 1919 and read daily thereafter.

It is worthy of note that this issue of The Round Table discussed the
Czech crisis in two articles of twenty-seven pages and had only one
sentence on Russia. This sentence spoke of the weakness of Russia,
where "a new Tiberius had destroyed the morale and the material effi-
ciency of the Russian Army." However, in a separate article, dealing

292 / The Anglo-American Establishment

largely with Soviet-German relations, we find the significant
sentences: "The Western democracies appear to be framing their
policies on the principle of 'letting Germany go east.'. . . [Russia faces]
the fundamental need of preventing a hostile coalition of the great
Powers of western Europe."

The final judgment of the Milner Group on the Munich surrender
could probably be found in the December 1938 issue of The Round
Table, where we read the following: "The nation as a whole is acutely
aware that Anglo-French predominance, resulting from victory in the
great war, is now a matter of history, that the conception of an interna-
tional society has foundered because the principle of the rule of law
was prostituted to perpetuate an impossible inequality. . . . The terms
of the Versailles Treaty might have been upheld for some time longer
by the consistent use of military power — notably when Germany
remilitarized the Rhineland zone — but it was illogical to expect a
defeated and humiliated foe to accept inferiority as the immutable con-
comitant of a nobler world, and it was immoral to try to build the City
of God on lopsided foundations."

As late as the March 1939 issue, The Round Table point of view re-
mained unchanged. At that time it said: "The policy of appeasement,
which Mr. Chamberlain represents and which he brought to what
seemed to be its most triumphant moment at Munich, was the only
possible policy on which the public opinion of the different nations of
the Commonwealth could have been unified. It had already been
unanimously approved in general terms at the Imperial Conference of
1937."

The German occupation of Bohemia and Moravia in March 1939
marked the turning point for the Milner Group, but not for the
Chamberlain group. In the June 1939 issue, the leading article of The
Round Table was entitled "From Appeasement to Grand Alliance."
Without expressing any regrets about the past, which it regarded as
embodying the only possible policy, it rejected appeasement in the
future. It demanded a "grand alliance" of Poland, Rumania, France,
Britain, and others. Only one sentence referred to Russia; it said:
"Negotiations to include Soviet Russia in the system are continuing."
Most of the article justified the previous policy as inevitable in a world
of sovereign states. Until federation abolishes sovereignty and creates a
true world government amenable to public opinion, the nations will
continue to live in anarchy, whatever their contractual obligations
may be; and under conditions of anarchy it is power and not public
opinion that counts. . . .The fundamental, though not the only, ex-
planation of the tragic history of the last eight years is to be found in
the failure of the English-speaking democracies to realize that they
could prevent aggression only by unity and by being strongly armed

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 293

enough to resist it wherever it was attempted."

This point of view had been expressed earlier, in the House of Lords,
by Lothian and Astor. On 12 April 1939, the former said:

One of Herr Hitler's great advantages has been that, for very long, what
he sought a great many people all over the world felt was not unreason-
able, whatever they may have thought of his methods. But that justifica-
tion has completely and absolutely disappeared in the last three months.
It began to disappear in my mind at the Godesberg Conference. ... I
think the right answer to the situation is what Mr. Churchill has advo-
cated elsewhere, a grand alliance of all those nations whose interest is
paramountry concerned with the maintenance of their own status-quo.
But in my view if you are going to do that you have got to have a grand
alliance which will function not only in the West of Europe but also in the
East. I agree with what my noble friend Lord Snell has just said that in
that Eastern alliance Russia may be absolutely vital. . . . Nobody will sus-
pect me of any ideological sympathy with Russia or Communism. I have
even less ideological sympathy with Soviet Russia than I had with the
Czarist Russia. But in resisting aggression it is power alone that counts.

He then went on to advocate national service and was vigorously sup-
ported by Lord Astor, both in regard to this and in regard to the
necessity of bringing Russia into the "grand alliance."

From this point onward, the course of the Milner Group was more
rigid against Germany. This appeared chiefly as an increased emphasis
on rearmament and national service, policies which the Group had
been supporting for a long time. Unlike the Chamberlain group, they
learned a lesson from the events of 15 March 1939. It would be a
mistake, however, to believe that they were determined to resist any
further acquisition of territory or economic advantage by Germany.
Not at all. They would undoubtedly have been willing to allow frontier
rectifications in the Polish Corridor or elsewhere in favor of Germany,
if these were accomplished by a real process of negotiation and in-
cluded areas inhabited by Germans, and if the economic interests of
Poland, such as her trade outlet to the Baltic, were protected. In this
the Milner Group were still motivated by ideas of fairness and justice
and by a desire to avoid a war. The chief changes were two: (1) they
now felt, as they (in contrast to Chamberlain's group) had long
suspected, that peace could be preserved better by strength than by
weakness; and (2) they now felt that Hitler would not stop at any point
based only on justice but was seeking world domination. The short-run
goal of the Milner Group still remained a Continent dominated by
Hitler between an Oceanic Bloc on the west and the Soviet Union on
the east. That they assumed such a solution could keep the peace, even
on a short-term basis, shows the fundamental naivete of the Milner
Group. The important point is that this view did not prohibit any

294 / The Anglo-American Establishment

modification of the Polish frontiers;, not did it require any airtight
understanding with the Soviet Union. It did involve an immediate
rearming of Britain and a determination to stop Hitler if he moved by
force again. Of these three points, the first two were shared with the
Chamberlain group; the third was not. The difference rested on the
fact that the Chamberlain group hoped to permit Britain to escape
from the necessity of fighting Germany by getting Bussia to fight Ger-
many. The Chamberlain group did not share the Milner Group's naive
belief in the possibility of three great power blocs standing side by side
in peace. Lacking that belief, they preferred a German-Russian war to
a British-German war. And, having that preference, they differed
from the Milner Group in their willingness to accept the partition of
Poland by Germany. The Milner Group would have yielded parts of
Poland to Germany if done by fair negotiation. The Chamberlain
group was quite prepared to liquidate Poland entirely, if it could be
presented to the British people in terms which they would accept
without demanding war. Here again appeared the difference we have
already mentioned between the Milner Group and Lloyd George in
1918 and between the Group and Baldwin in 1923, namely that the
Milner Group tended to neglect the electoral considerations so impor-
tant to a party politician. In 1939 Chamberlain was primarily in-
terested in building up to a victorious electoral campaign for
November, and, as Sir Horace Wilson told German Special Represen-
tative Wohl in June, "it was all one to the Government whether the
elections were held under the cry 'Be Ready for a Coming War' or
under a cry 'A Lasting Understanding with Germany.' "

These distinctions between the point of view of the Milner Group
and that of the Chamberlain group are very subtle and have nothing in
common with the generally accepted idea of a contrast between ap-
peasement and resistance. There were still appeasers to be found,
chiefly in those ranks of the Conservative Party most remote from the
Milner Group; British public opinion was quite clearly committed to
resistance after March 1939. The two government groups be-
tween these, with the Chamberlain group closer to the former and the
Milner Group closer to the latter. It is a complete error to say, as most
students of the period have said, that before 15 March the government
was solidly appeasement and afterwards solidly resistant. The
Chamberlain group, after 17 March 1939, was just as partial to ap-
peasement as before, perhaps more so, but it had to adopt a pretense of
resistance to satisfy public opinion and keep a way open to wage the
November election on either side of the issue. The Milner Group was
anti-appeasement after March, but in a limited way that did not in-
volve any commitment to defend the territorial integrity of Poland or
to ally with Russia.

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 295

This complicated situation is made more so by the fact that the
Milner Group itself was disintegrating. Some members, chiefly in the
second circle, like Hoare or Simon, continued as wholehearted, if
secret, appeasers and became closer to Chamberlain. Halifax, who did
not have to run for office, could speak his mind more honestly and
probably had a more honest mind. He was closer to the Milner Group,
although he continued to cooperate so closely with Chamberlain that
he undoubtedly lost the prime minister's post in May 1940 as a result.
Amery, closer than Halifax to the inner core of the Group, was also
more of a resister and by the middle of 1939 was finished with appease-
ment. Lothian was in a position between Halifax and Amery.

The point of view of the inner core can be found, as usual, in the
pages of The Round Table. In the issue of September 1939, the leading
article confessed that Hitler's aim was mastery of the world. It con-
tinued: "In this light, any further accretion of German strength — for
instance through control of Danzig, which is the key to subjection of all
Poland— appears as a retreat from the ramparts of the British Com-
monwealth itself. Perhaps our slowness to realize these facts, or at least
to act accordingly in building an impregnable defence against aggres-
sion in earlier years, accounts for our present troubles." For the Milner
Group, this constitutes a magnificent confession of culpability.

In the December 1939 issue of The Round Table, the whole tone has
reverted to that of 1911-1918. Gone is the idea that modern Germany
was the creation of the United States and Britain or that Nazism was
merely a temporary and insignificant aberration resulting from
Versailles. Instead the issue is "Commonwealth or Weltreich?" Nazism
"is only Prussianism in more brutal shape." It quotes Lord Lothian's
speech of 25 October 1939, made in New York, that "The establish-
ment of a true reign of law between nations is the only remedy for
war." And we are told once again that such a reign of law must be
sought in federation. In the same issue, the whole of Lothian's speech
was reprinted as a "document." In the March 1940 issue, The Round
Table harked back even further than 1914. It quoted an extensive
passage from Pericles 's funeral oration in a leading article entitled "The
Issue," and added: "That also is our creed, but it is not Hitler's."

The same point of view of the Group is reflected in other places. On
16 March 1939, in the Commons, when Chamberlain was still defend-
ing the appeasement policy and refusing to criticize Germany's policy
of aggression, Lady Astor cried out to him, "Will the Prime Minister
lose no time in letting the German Government know with what horror
the whole of this country regards Germany's action?"

The Prime Minister did not answer, but a Conservative Member,
Major Vyvyan Adams, hurled at the lady the remark, "You caused it
yourself."

296 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Major Adams was not a man to be lightly dismissed. A graduate of
Haileybury and Cambridge, past president of the Cambridge Union,
member of the Inner Temple Bar, an executive of the League of Na-
tions Union, and a vice-president of Lord Davies's New Com-
monwealth Society, he was not a man who did not know what was
going on. He subsequently published two books against appeasement
under the pseudomyn "Watchman."

Most of the members of the inner core of the Group who took any
public stand on these issues refused to rake over the dead embers of past
policy and devoted themselves to a program of preparedness and na-
tional service. The names of Amery, Grigg, Lothian, and The Times
became inseparably associated with the campaign for conscription,
which ultimately resulted in the National Service Act of 26 April 1939.
The more aloof and more conciliatory point of view of Halifax can be
seen in his speech of 9 June in the House of Lords and the famous
speech of 29 June before the Royal Institute of International Affairs.
The lingering overtones of appeasement in the former resulted in a
spirited attack by Lord Davies, while Arthur Salter, who had earlier
been plumping for a Ministry of All the Talents with Halifax as
Premier, by the middle of the year was begging him, at All Souls, to
meet Stalin face to face in order to get an alliance. 17

The events of 1939 do not require our extended attention here,
although they have never yet been narrated in any adequate fashion.
The German seizure of Bohemia and Moravia was not much of a sur-
prise to either the Milner or Chamberlain groups; both accepted it, but
the former tried to use it as a propaganda device to help get conscrip-
tion, while the latter soon discovered that, whatever their real
thoughts, they must publicly condemn it in order to satisfy the
outraged moral feelings of the British electorate. It is this which ex-
plains the change in tone between Chamberlain's speech of 15 March in
Commons and his speech of 17 March in Birmingham. The former was
what he thought; the latter was what he thought the voters wanted.

The unilateral guarantee to Poland given by Chamberlain on 31
March 1939 was also a reflection of what he believed the voters
wanted. He had no intention of ever fulfilling the guarantee if it could
possibly be evaded and, for this reason, refused the Polish requests for a
small rearmament loan and to open immediate staff discussions to im-
plement the guarantee. The Milner Group, less susceptible to public
opinion, did not want the guarantee to Poland at all. As a result, the
guarantee was worded to cover Polish "independence" and not her
"territorial integrity." This was interpreted by the leading article of
The Times for 1 April to leave the way open to territorial revision
without revoking the guarantee. This interpretation was accepted by
Chamberlain in Commons on 3 April. Apparently the government

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 297

believed that it was making no real commitment because, if war broke
out in eastern Europe, British public opinion would force the govern-
ment to declare war on Germany, no matter what the government
itself wanted, and regardless whether the guarantee existed or not. On
the other hand, a guarantee to Poland might deter Hitler from
precipitating a war and give the government time to persuade the
Polish government to yield the Corridor to Germany. If the Poles could
not be persuaded, or if Germany marched, the fat was in the fire
anyway; if the Poles could be persuaded to yield, the guarantee was so
worded that Britain could not act under it to prevent such yielding.
This was to block any possibility that British public opinion might
refuse to accept a Polish Munich. That this line of thought was not far
distant from British government circles is indicated by a Reuters news
dispatch released on the same day that Chamberlain gave the
guarantee to Poland. This dispatch indicated that, under cover of the
guarantee, Britian would put pressure on Poland to make substantial
concessions to Hitler through negotiations. According to Hugh Dalton,
Labour M.P., speaking in Commons on 3 April, this dispatch was in-
spired by the government and was issued through either the Foreign
Office, Sir Horace Wilson, John Simon, or Samuel Hoare. Three of
these four were of the Milner Group, the fourth being the personal
agent of Chamberlain. Dalton's charge was not denied by any govern-
ment spokesman, Hoare contenting himself with a request to Dalton
"to justify that statement." Another M.P. of Churchill's group sug-
gested that Geoffrey Dawson was the source, but Dalton rejected this.

It is quite clear that neither the Chamberlain group nor the Milner
Group wanted an alliance with the Soviet Union to stop Hitler in 1939,
and that the negotiations were not sincere or vigorously pursued. The
Milner Group was not so opposed to such an agreement as the
Chamberlain group. Both were committed to the four-power pact. In
the case of the Chamberlain group, this pact could easily have
developed into an anti-Russian alliance, but in the case of the Milner
Group it was regarded merely as a link between the Oceanic Bloc and a
Germanic Mitteleuropa. Both groups hated and despised the Soviet
Union, but the Milner Group did not fear it as the Chamberlain group
did. This fear was based on the Marxist threat to the British economic
system, and the Milner Group was not wedded nearly as closely to that
system as Chamberlain and his friends. The Toynbee-Milner tradition,
however weak it had become by 1939, was enough to prevent the two
groups from seeing eye to eye on this issue.

The efforts of the Chamberlain group to continue the policy of ap-
peasement by making economic and other concessions to Germany and
their efforts to get Hitler to agree to a four-power pact form one of the
most shameful episodes in the history of recent British diplomacy.

298 / The Anglo-American Establishment

These negotiations were chiefly conducted through Sir Horace Wilson
and consisted chiefly of offers of colonial bribes and other concessions
to Germany. These offers were either rejected or ignored by the Nazis.

One of these offers revolved around a semi-official economic agree-
ment under which British and German industrialists would form cartel
agreements in all fields to fix prices of their products and divide up the
world's market. The Milner Group apparently objected to this on the
grounds that it was aimed, or could be aimed, at the United States.
Nevertheless, the agreements continued; a master agreement,
negotiated at Dusseldorf between representatives of British and Ger-
man industry, was signed in London on 16 March 1939. A British
government mission to Berlin to help Germany exploit the newly ac-
quired areas of eastern Europe was postponed the same day because of
the strength of public feeling against Germany. As soon as this had died
down, secret efforts were made through R. S. Hudson, secretary to the
Department of Overseas Trade, to negotiate with Helmuth Wohlthat,
Reich Commissioner for the Four Year Plan, who was in London to
negotiate an international whaling agreement. Although Wholthat
had no powers, he listened to Hudson and later to Sir Horace Wilson,
but refused to discuss the matter with Chamberlain. Wilson offered:
(1) a nonaggression pact with Germany; (2) a delimitation of spheres
among the Great Powers; (3) colonial concessions in Africa along the
lines previously mentioned; (4) an economic agreement. These conver-
sations, reported to Berlin by Ambassador Dirksen in a dispatch of 21
July 1939, would have involved giving Germany a free hand in eastern
Europe and bringing her into collision with Russia. One sentence of
Dirksen 's says: "Sir Horace Wilson definitely told Herr Wohlthat that
the conclusion of a non-aggression pact would enable Britian to rid
herself of her commitments vis-a-vis Poland." In another report, three
days later, Dirksen said: "Public opinion is so inflamed, and the war-
mongers and intriguers are so much in the ascendancy, that if these
plans of negotiations with Germany were to become public they would
immediately be torpedoed by Churchill and other incendiaries with
the cry 'No second Munich!' "

The truth of this statement was seen when news of the Hudson-
Wohlthat conversations did leak out and resulted in a violent
controversy in the House of Commons, in which the Speaker of the
House repeatedly broke off the debate to protect the government. Ac-
cording to Press Adviser Hesse in the German Embassy in London, the
leak was made by the French Embassy to force a break in the negotia-
tions. The negotiations, however, were already bogging down because
of the refusal of the Germans to become very interested in them. Hitler
and Ribbentrop by this time despised the British so thoroughly that
they paid no attention to them at all, and the German Ambassador in

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 299

London found it impossible to reach Ribbentrop, his official superior,
either by dispatch or personally. Chamberlain, however, in his
eagerness to make economic concessions to Germany, gave to Hitler £6
million in Czechoslovak gold in the Bank of England, and kept Lord
Runciman busy training to be chief economic negotiator in the great
agreement which he envisaged. On 29 July 1939, Kordt, the German
charge d'affaires in London, had a long talk with Charles Roden Bux-
ton, brother of the Labour Peer Lord Noel-Buxton, about the terms of
this agreement, which was to be patterned on the agreement of 1907
between Britain and Russia. Buxton insisted that his visit was quite
unofficial, but Kordt was inclined to believe that his visit was a feeler
from the Chamberlain group. In view of the close parallel between
Buxton's views and Chamberlain's, this seems very likely. This was cor-
roborated when Sir Horace Wilson repeated these views in a highly
secret conversation with Dirksen at Wilson's home from 4 to 6 p.m. on
3 August 1939. Dirksen's minute of the same day shows that Wilson's
aims had not changed. He wanted a four-power pact, a free hand for
Germany in eastern Europe, a colonial agreement, an economic agree-
ment, etc. The memorandum reads, in part: "After recapitulating his
conversation with Wohlthat, Sir Horace Wilson expatiated at length on
the great risk Chamberlain would incur by starting confidential
negotiations with the German Government. If anything about them
were to leak out there would be a grand scandal, and Chamberlain
would probably be forced to resign." Dirksen did not see how any bind-
ing agreement could be reached under conditions such as this; "for ex-
ample, owing to Hudson's indiscretion, another visit of Herr Wohlthat
to London was out of the question." To this, Wilson suggested that "the
two emissaries could meet in Switzerland or elsewhere." The political
portions of this conversation were largely repeated in an interview that
Dirksen had with Lord Halifax on 9 August 1939. 18

It was not possible to conceal these activities completely from the
public, and, indeed, government spokesmen referred to them occa-
sionally in trial balloons. On 3 May, Chamberlain suggested an Anglo-
German nonaggression pact, although only five days earlier Hitler had
denounced the Anglo-German naval agreement of 1935 and the Polish-
German nonaggression pact of 1934. As late as 28 August, Sir Nevile
Henderson offered Germany a British alliance if she were successful in
direct negotiations with the Poles. 19 This, however, was a personal
statement and probably went further than Halifax would have been
willing to go by 1939. Halifax apparently had little faith in
Chamberlain's ability to obtain any settlement with the Germans. If,
by means of another Munich, he could have obtained a German-Polish
settlement that would satisfy Germany and avoid war, he would have
taken it. It was the hope of such an agreement that prevented him

300 / The Anglo- American Establishment

from making any real agreement with Russia, for it was, apparently,
the expectation of the British government that if the Germans could get
the Polish Corridor by negotiation, they could then drive into Russia
across the Baltic States. For this reason, in the negotiations with
Russia, Halifax refused any multilateral pact against aggression, any
guarantee of the Baltic States, or any tripartite guarantee of Poland.
Instead, he sought to get nothing more than a unilateral Russian guar-
antee to Poland to match the British guarantee to the same country.
This was much too dangerous for Russia to swallow, since it would
leave her with a commitment which could lead to war and with no
promise of British aid to her if she were attacked directly, after a Polish
settlement, or indirectly across the Baltic States. Only after the Ger-
man Soviet Nonaggression Pact of 21 August 1939 did Halifax imple-
ment the unilateral guarantee to Poland with a more formal mutual
assistance pact between Britain and Poland. This was done to warn
Hitler that an attack on Poland would bring Britain into the war under
pressure of British public opinion. Hitler, as usual, paid no attention to
Britain. Even after the German attack on Poland, the British govern-
ment was reluctant to fulfill this pact and spent almost three days ask-
ing the Germans to return to negotiation. Even after the British were
forced to declare war on Germany, they made no effort to fight, con-
tenting themselves with dropping leaflets on Germany. We now know
that the German generals had moved so much of their forces to the east
that they were gravely worried at the effects which might follow an
Allied attack on western Germany or even an aerial bombing of the
Ruhr.

In these events of 1939, the Milner Group took little part. They must
have known of the negotiations with Germany and probably did not
disapprove of them, but they had little faith in them and by the early
summer of 1939 were probably convinced that war with Germany was
inevitable in the long run. In this view Halifax probably shared, but
other former members of the Group, such as Hoare and Simon, by now
were completely in the Chamberlain group and can no longer be
regarded as members of the Milner Group. From June 1939 to May
1940, the fissure between the Milner Group and the Chamberlain
government became wider.

From the outbreak of war, the Milner Group were determined to
fight the war against Germany; the Chamberlain group, on the other
hand, were very reluctant to fight Germany, preferring to combine a
declared but unfought war with Germany with a fought but
undeclared war with Russia. The excuse for this last arose from the
Russian pressure on Finland for bases to resist a future German attack.
The Russian attack on Finland began on the last day of November
1939; by 27 December, the British and French were putting pressure
on Sweden to join them in action to support the Finns. In these notes,

Foreign Policy: 1919-1940 / 301

which have been published by the Swedish Foreign Ministry, the
Western Powers stated that they intended to send men, equipment,
and money to Finland. By February 1940, the Western Powers had
plans for a force of 30,000 to 40,000 men for Finland and were putting
pressure on Sweden to allow passage for this force across Scandinavia.
By 2 March 1940, the British had a force of 100,000 men ready and in-
formed the Swedish and Norwegian governments that "the force with
its full equipment is available and could sail at short notice." They in-
vited the Scandinavian countries to receive Allied missions to make all
the necessary preparations for the transit. The note to Norway, in an
additional passage, said that forces would be sent to the Norwegian
ports within four days of receiving permission, and the transit itself
could begin on 20 March. On 12 March the Allies sent to the Scandina-
vian countries a formal request for right of transit. It was refused.
Before anything further could be done, Finland collapsed and made
peace with Russia. On 5 April, Halifax sent a very threatening note to
the Scandinavian countries. It said in part:

. . . considering, in consultation with the French Government, the
circumstances attending the termination of the war between the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics and Finland and the attitude adopted by the
Swedish Government at that time . . . they feel therefore that the time
has come to notify the Swedish Government frankly of certain vital inter-
ests and requirements which the Allied Governments intend to assert and
defend by whatever measure they may think necessary. The vital interests
and the requirements which the Allied Governments wish to bring to the
notice of the Swedish Government are the following: (a) The Allied Gov-
ernments cannot acquiesce in any further attack on Finland by either the
Soviet or German Governments. In the event therefore, of such an attack
taking place, any refusal by the Swedish Government to facilitate the
efforts of the Allied Governments to come to the assistance of Finland in
whatever manner they may think fit, and still more any attempt to pre-
vent such assistance would be considered by the Allied Governments as
endangering their vital interests. ...(c) Any attempt by the Soviet Gov-
ernment to obtain from Norway a footing on the Atlantic seaboard would
be contrary to the vital interests of the Allied Governments."

The Swedish Foreign Minister expressed his government's astonishment
at this note and its determination to decide such questions for itself and
to preserve Sweden's neutrality in the future as it had been preserved in
the past. 20

It is not clear what was the attitude of the Milner Group toward this
effort to open active hostilities against the Soviet Union while remain-
ing technically in a state of war with Germany. Halifax was still at the
Foreign Office and apparently actively concerned in this project. The
Times was wholeheartedly in favor of the plan. On 5 March, for exam-
ple, it said of the Finnish war: "It is becoming clearer every day that

302 / The Anglo-American Establishment

this war is no side issue. Finland is defending more than the cause of
liberty and more than her own soil. . . . Our own cause is being but-
ressed by her resistance to the evil of tryanny. . . . Our interest is clear
and there is a moral issue involved as well as the material. The whole
sentiment of this country demands that Finland should not be allowed
to fall."

The Round Table, in the only issue which appeared during the Fin-
nish troubles, had a propagandist article on "The Civilization of
Finland." It called Finland "one of the most democratic nations, on
any definition, in all Europe." The rest of the article was a paean of
praise for the kind and magnanimous conduct of the Finnish govern-
ment in every crisis of its history from 1917, but nothing was said about
the Finnish war, nor was there any mention of Allied aid.

During this period the Milner Group became increasingly impatient
with the Chamberlain group. This was clear from the June 1940 issue
of The Round Table, which criticized the Cabinet reshuffle of April as
evoking "almost universal derision." It also criticized Chamberlain's
failure to include able members of his own party in the Cabinet. This
may have been a reference to Amery's continued exclusion. The article
said: "This lack of imagination and courage could be seen in almost
every aspect of the Chamberlain Government's conduct of the war." It
excluded Simon and Hoare as possible prime ministers, on the ground
that they were too close to Chamberlain. It was probably thinking of
Halifax as prime minister, but, when the time came, others thought
him, also, to be too closely associated with appeasement. On the
crucial day, 8 May 1940, the Group was badly split. In fact, on the
division that preceded Chamberlain's resignation, Lady Astor voted
against the government, while her brother-in-law, John Jacob Astor,
voted with the government. The debate was one of the most bitter in
recent history and reached its high point when Amery cried out to the
Government benches the words of Cromwell: "You have sat too long
here for any good you have been doing. Depart, I say, and let us have
done with you. In the name of God, go!" In the ensuing division, the
whips were on with a vengeance, but the government's majority was
only 81, more than a hundred Conservatives abstaining from voting.
Most of the Milner Group members, since they held offices in the
government, had to vote with it. Of the inner core, only Amery and
Lady Astor broke away. In the majority, still supporting Chamberlain,
were J. J. Astor, Grigg, Hoare, Malcolm MacDonald, Salter, Simon,
and Somervell. But the fight had been too bitter. Chamberlain was
replaced by Churchill, and Amery came to office (as Secretary of State
for India). Once again the Milner Group and the government were
united on the issues. Both, from 8 May 1940, had only one aim: to win
the war with Germany.

13

The Second World War,
1939-1945

The Milner Group played a considerable role in the Second World
War, not scattered throughout the various agencies associated with the
great struggle, but concentrated in four or five chief fiefs. Among these
were: (1) the Research and Intelligence Department of the Foreign Of-
fice; (2) the British Embassy in Washington; (3) the Ministry of Infor-
mation; and (4) those agencies concerned with economic mobilization
and economic reconstruction. Considering the age of most of the inner
core of the Milner Group during the Second World War (the youngest,
Lothian, was 57 in 1939; Hichens was 65; Brand was 61; Dawson was
65; and Curtis was 67), they accomplished a great deal. Unable, in
most cases, to serve themselves, except in an advisory capacity, they
filled their chief fiefs with their younger associates. In most cases, these
were recruited from All Souls, but occasionally they were obtained
elsewhere.

We have already indicated how the Research and Press Department
of Chatham House was made into the Research and Intelligence
Department of the Foreign Office, at first unofficially and then offi-
cially. This was dominated by Lionel Curtis and Arnold Toynbee, the
latter as director of the department for the whole period 1939-1946.
Others who were associated with this activity were B. H. Sumner
(Warden of All Souls), C. A. Macartney, A. E. Zimmern, J. W.
Wheeler-Bennett, and most of the paid staff from Chatham House.
Zimmern was deputy director in 1943-1945, and Wheeler-Bennett was
deputy director in 1945.

Of even greater significance was the gathering of Milner Group
members and their recruits in Washington. The Group had based most
of their foreign policy since 1920 on the hope of "closer union" with the
United States, and they realized that American intervention in the war
was absolutely essential to insure a British victory. Accordingly, more
than a dozen members of the Group were in Washington during the
war, seeking to carry on this policy.

303

304 / The Anglo-American Establishment

Lord Lothian was named Ambassador to the United States as soon as
the war began. It was felt that his long acquaintance with the country
and the personal connections built up during almost fifteen years as
Rhodes Secretary more than counteracted his intimate relationship
with the notorious Cliveden Set, especially as this latter relationship
was unknown to most Americans. On Lothian's unexpected and
lamented death in December 1940, the position in Washington was
considered to be of such crucial importance that Lord Halifax was
shifted to the vacant post from the Foreign Office. He retained his posi-
tion in the War Cabinet. Thus the post at Washington was raised to a
position which no foreign legation had ever had before. Lord Halifax
continued to hold the post until 1946, a year after the war was actually
finished. During most of the period, he was surrounded by members of
the Milner Group, chiefly Fellows of All Souls, so that it was almost im-
possible to turn around in the British Embassy without running into a
member of that select academic circle. The most important of these
were Lord Brand, Harold Butler, and Arthur Salter.

Lord Brand was in America from March 1941 to May 1946, as head
of the British Food Mission for three years and as representative of the
British Treasury for two years. He was also chairman of the British
Supply Council in North America in 1942 and again in 1945-1946. He
did not resign his position as managing director of Lazard Brothers un-
til May 1944. Closely associated with Brand was his protege, Adam D.
Marris, son of Sir William Marris of the Kindergarten, who was
employed at Lazard Brothers from 1929 to the outbreak of war, then
spent a brief period in the Ministry of Economic Warfare in London.
In 1940 he came to the Embassy in Washington, originally as First
Secretary, later as Counsellor. After the war he was, for six months,
secretary general of the Emergency Economic Committee for Europe.
In February 1946 he returned to Lazard Brothers.

Harold Butler (Sir Harold since 1946) came to Washington in 1942
with the rank of minister. He stayed for four years, being chiefly con-
cerned with public relations. Sir Arthur Salter, who married a Wash-
ington lady in 1940, came to America in 1941 as head of the British
Merchant Shipping Mission. He stayed until UNRRA was set up early
in 1944, when he joined the new organization as Senior Deputy Direc-
tor General. A year later he joined the Cabinet as Chancellor for the
Duchy of Lancaster. Sir Arthur was well qualified as a shipping expert,
having been engaged intermittently in government shipping problems
since he left Brasenose College in 1904. His close personal relations
with Lord Halifax went back to an even earlier period, when they both
were students at Oxford.

Among the lesser persons who came to Washington during the war,
we should mention four members of All Souls: I. Berlin, J. G. Foster,

The Second World War: 1939-1945 / 305

R. M. Makins, and J. H. A. Sparrow. Isaiah Berlin, one of the newer
recruits to the Milner Group, made his way into this select circle by
winning a Fellowship to All Souls in 1932, the year after he graduated
from Corpus Christi. Through this connection, he became a close
friend of Mr. and Mrs. H. A. L. Fisher and has been a Fellow and
Tutor of New College since 1938. In 1941 he came to New York to work
with J. W. Wheeler-Bennett in the Ministry of Information's American
branch but stayed for no more than a year. In 1942 he became First
Secretary in the Embassy in Washington, a position but recently
vacated by Adam Marris. After the war he went for a brief period of
four months to a similar post in the British Embassy in Moscow. In
1949 he came to Harvard University as visiting lecturer on Russia.

John Galway Foster is another recent recruit to the Milner Group
and, like Berlin, won his entry by way of All Souls (1924). He is also a
graduate of New College and from 1935 to 1939 was lecturer in Private
International Law at Oxford. In 1939 he went to the Embassy in
Washington as First Secretary and stayed for almost five years. In 1944
he was commissioned a brigadier on special service and the following
year gained considerable prestige by winning a Conservative seat in
Parliament in the face of the Labour tidal wave. He is still a Fellow of
All Souls, after twenty-five years, and this fact alone would indicate he
has a position as an important member of the Group.

Roger Mellor Makins, son of a Conservative M.P., was elected a
Fellow of All Souls immediately after graduation from Christ Church
in 1925. He joined the diplomatic service in 1928 and spent time in
London, Washington, and (briefly) Oslo in the next nine years. In 1937
he became assistant adviser on League of Nations affairs to the Foreign
Office. He was secretary to the British delegation to the Evian Con-
ference on Refugees from Germany in 1938 and became secretary to
the Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees set up at that meeting.
In 1939 he returned to the Foreign Office as adviser on League of Na-
tions Affairs but soon became a First Secretary; he was adviser to the
British delegation at the New York meeting of the International
Labour Conference in 1941 and the following year joined the staff of
the Resident Minister in West Africa. When the Allied Headquarters in
the Mediterranean area was set up in 1943, he joined the staff of the
Resident British Minister with that unit. At the end of the war, in 1945,
he went to the Embassy in Washington with the rank of Minister. In
this post he had the inestimable advantage that his wife, whom he mar-
ried in 1934, was the daughter of the late Dwight F. Davis, Secretary
of War in the Hoover Administration. During this period Makins
played an important role at various international organizations. He
was the United Kingdom representative on the Interim Commission for
Food and Agriculture of the United Nations in 1945; he was adviser to

306 / The Anglo-American Establishment

the United Kingdom delegation to the first FAO Conference at Quebec
the same year; he was a delegate to the Atlantic City meeting of
UNRRA in the following year. In 1947 he left Washington to become
Assistant Under Secretary of State in the Foreign Office in London.

Another important member of All Souls who appeared briefly in
Washington during the war was John H. A. Sparrow. Graduated from
Winchester School and New College by 1927, he became an Eldon Law
Scholar and a Fellow of All Souls in 1929. He is still a Fellow of the
latter after twenty years. Commissioned in the Coldstream Guards in
1940, he was in Washington on a confidential military mission during
most of 1940 and was attached to the War Office from 1942 to the end
of the war.

Certain other members of the Group were to be found in the United
States during the period under discussion. We have already mentioned
the services rendered to the Ministry of Information by J. W. Wheeler-
Bennett in New York from 1939 to 1944. Robert J. Stopford was Finan-
cial Counsellor to the British Embassy in 1940-1943. We should also
mention that F. W. Eggleston, chief Australian member of the Group,
was Australian Minister in Washington from 1944 to 1946. And the
story of the Milner Group's activities in Washington would not be com-
plete without at least mentioning Percy E. Corbett.

Percy Corbett of Prince Edward Island, Canada, took a M.A. degree
at McGill University in 1915 and went to Balliol as a Rhodes Scholar.
He was a Fellow of All Souls in 1920-1928 and a member of the staff of
the League of Nations in 1920-1924. He was Professor of Roman Law
at McGill University from 1924 to 1937 and had been Professor of
Government and Jurisprudence and chairman of the Department of
Political Science at Yale since 1944. He has always been close to the
Milner Group, participating in many of their Canadian activities, such
as the Canadian Royal Institute of International Affairs, the unofficial
British Commonwealth relations conferences, and the Institute of
Pacific Relations. He was chairman of the Pacific Council of the last
organization in 1942. During the war he spent much of his time in the
United States, especially in Washington, engaged in lobbying activities
for the British Embassy, chiefly in Rhodes Scholarship and academic
circles but also in government agencies. Since the war ended, he has
obtained, by his position at Yale, a place of considerable influence,
especially since Yale began, in 1948, to publish its new quarterly
review called World Politics. On this review, Professor Corbett is one
of the more influential members. At present he must be numbered
among the three most important Canadian members of the Milner
Group, the other two being Vincent Massey and George Parkin Glaze-
brook.

In view of the emphasis which the Milner Group has always placed

The Second World War: 1939-1945 / 307

on publicity and the need to control the chief avenues by which the
general public obtains information on public affairs, it is not surprising
to find that the Ministry of Information was one of the fiefs of the
Group from its establishment in 1939.

At the outbreak of war, H. A. L. Fisher had been Governor of the
BBC for four years. It was probably as a result of this connection that
L. F. Rushbrook Williams, whom we have already mentioned in con-
nection with Indian affairs and as a member of All Souls since 1914,
became Eastern Service Director of the BBC. He was later adviser on
Middle East affairs to the Ministry of Information but left this, in
1944, to become an editor of The Times. Edward Griggs, now Lord
Altrincham, was Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Informa-
tion from its creation to the Cabinet revision of 1940, when he shifted
to the War Office. J. W. Wheeler-Bennett and Isaiah Berlin were with
the New York office of the Ministry of Information, as we have seen,
the former throughout the war and the latter in 1941-1942. H. V. Hod-
son, Fellow of All Souls and probably the most important of the newer
recruits to the Milner Group, was Director of the Empire Division of
the Ministry of Information from its creation in 1939 until he went to
India as Reforms Commissioner in 1941-1942. And finally, Cyril John
Radcliffe (Sir Cyril after 1944), a graduate of New College in 1922 and
a Fellow of All Souls for fifteen years (1922-1937), son-in-law of Lord
Charnwood since 1939, was in the Ministry of Information for the
whole period of the war, more than four years of it as Director General
of the whole organization. '

In addition to these three great fiefs (the Research and Intelligence
Department of the Foreign Office, the Embassy in Washington, and
the Ministry of Information), the Milner Group exercised considerable
influence in those branches of the administration concerned with
emergency economic regulations, although here the highest positions
were reserved to those members of the Cecil Bloc closest to the Milner
Group. Oliver Lyttelton, whose mother was a member of the Group,
was Controller of Non-Ferrous Metals in 1939-1940, was President of
the Board of Trade in 1940-1941, and was Minister of Production in
1942-1945. Lord Wolmer (Lord Selborne since 1942) was Director of
Cement in the Ministry of Works in 1940-1942 and Minister of Eco-
nomic Warfare in 1942-1945. In this connection, it should be men-
tioned that the Milner Group had developed certain economic interests
in non-ferrous metals and in cement in the period of the 1920s and
1930s. The former developed both from their interest in colonial mines,
which were the source of the ores, and from their control of electrical
utilities, which supplied much of the power needed to reduce these
ores. The center of these interests was to be found, on the one hand, in
the Rhodes Trust and the economic holdings of the associates of Milner

308 / The Anglo-American Establishment

and Rhodes like R. S. Holland, Abe Railey, P. L. Gell, etc., and, on the
other hand, in the utility interests of Lazard Brothers and of the Hoare
family. The ramifications of these interests are too complicated, and
too well concealed, to be described in any detail here, but we might
point out that Lord Milner was a director of Rio Tinto, that Dougal
Malcolm was a director of Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines, that
Samuel Hoare was a director of Birmingham Aluminum Casting Com-
pany until he took public office, that the Hoare family had extensive
holdings in Associated Tin Mines of Nigeria, in British-American Tin
Corporation, in London Tin Corporation, etc.; that R. S. Holland was
an Anglo-Spanish Construction Company, on British Copper Manufac-
turers, and on the British Metal Corporation; that Lyttelton Gell was a
director of Huelva Copper and of the Zinc Corporation; that Oliver
Lyttelton was managing director of the British Metal Corporation and
a director of Metallgesellschaft, the German light-metals monopoly.
The chief member of the Group in the cement industry was Lord
Meston, who was placed on many important corporations after his
return from India, including the Associated Portland Cement
Manufacturers and the British Portland Cement Manufacturers. The
third Lord Selborne was chairman of the Cement Makers' Federation
from 1934 to 1940, resigning to take charge of the government's
cement-regulation program.

In lesser posts in these activities, we might mention the following.
Charles R. S. Harris, whom we have already mentioned as an associate
of Brand, a Fellow of All Souls for fifteen years, a leader-writer on The
Times for ten years, the authority on Duns Scotus who wrote a book on
Germany's foreign indebtedness for Chatham House, was in the
Ministry of Economic Warfare in 1939-1940. He then spent two years
in Iceland for the Foreign Office, and three years with the War Office,
ending up in 1944-1945 as a member of the Allied Control Commission
for Italy. H. V. Hodson was principal assistant secretary and later head
of the Non-Munitions Division of the Ministry of Production from his
return from India to the end of the war (1942-1945). Douglas P. T. Jay,
a graduate of New College in 1930 and a Fellow of All Souls in the next
seven years, was on the staff of The Times and The Economist in the
period 1929-1937 and was city editor of The Daily Herald in 1937-
1941. He was assistant secretary to the Ministry of Supply in 1941-1943
and principal assistant secretary to the Board of Trade in 1943-1945.
After the Labour government came to power in the summer of 1945, he
was personal assistant to the Prime Minister (Clement Attlee) until he
became a Labour M.P. in 1946. Richard Pares, son of the famous
authority on Russia, the late Sir Bernard Pares, and son-in-law of the
famous historian Sir Maurice Powicke, was a Fellow of All Souls for
twenty-one years after he graduated from Balliol in 1924. He was a lee-

The Second World War: 1939-1945 / 309

turer at New College for eleven years, 1929-1940 and then was with the
Board of Trade for the duration of the war, 1940-1945. Since the war,
he has been Professor of History at Edinburgh. During most of the war
his father, Sir Bernard Pares, lectured in the United States as a pro-
Russian propagandist in the pay of the Ministry of Information. We
have already mentioned the brief period in which Adam Marris work-
ed for the Ministry of Economic Warfare in 1939-1940.

As the war went on, the Milner Group shifted their attention in-
creasingly to the subject of postwar planning and reconstruction. Much
of this was conducted through Chatham House. When the war began,
Toynbee wrote a letter to the Council of the RIIA, in which he said: "If
we get through the present crisis and are given a further chance to try
and put the world in order, we shall then feel a need to take a broader
and deeper view of our problems than we were inclined to take after
the War of 1914-1918. ... I believe this possibility has been in Mr.
Lionel Curtis's mind since the time when he first conceived the idea of
the Institute; his Civitas Dei and my Study of History are two recon-
naissances of this historical background to the study of comtemporary
international affairs." 2 At the end of 1942 the Group founded a
quarterly journal devoted to reconstruction. It was founded technically
under the auspices of the London School of Economics, but the editor
was G. N. Clark, a member of All Souls since 1912 and Chichele Pro-
fessor of Economic History from 1931 to 1943. The title of this journal
was Agenda, and its editorial offices were in Chatham House. These
tentative plans to dominate the postwar reconstruction efforts received
a rude jolt in August 1945, when the General Election removed the
Conservative government from power and brought to office a Labour
government. The influence of the Group in Labour circles has always
been rather slight.

Since this blow, the Milner Group has been in eclipse, and it is not
clear what has been happening. 3 Its control of The Times, of The
Round Table, of Chatham House, of the Rhodes Trust, of All Souls,
and of Oxford generally has continued but has been used without cen-
tralized purpose or conviction. Most of the original members of the
Group have retired from active affairs; the newer recruits have not the
experience or the intellectual conviction, or the social contacts, which
allowed the older members to wield such great power. The disasters
into which the Group directed British policy in the years before 1940
are not such as to allow their prestige to continue undiminished. In im-
perial affairs, their policies have been largely a failure, with Ireland
gone, India divided and going, Burma drifting away, and even South
Africa more distant than at any time since 1910. In foreign policy their
actions almost destroyed western civilization, or at least the European
center of it. The Times has lost its influence; The Round Table seems

310 / The Anglo-American Establishment

lifeless. Far worse than this, those parts of Oxford where the Group's
influence was strongest have suffered a disastrous decline. The
Montague Burton Professorship of International Relations, to which
Professor Zimmern and later Professor Woodward brought such great
talents, was given in 1948 to a middle-aged spinster, daughter of Sir
James Headlam-Morley, with one published work to her credit. The
Chichele Professorship of International Law and Diplomacy, held with
distinction for twenty- five years by Professor James L. Brierley, was
filled in 1947 by a common-law lawyer, a specialist in the law of real
property, who, by his own confession, is largely ignorant of interna-
tional law and whose sole published work, written with the collabora-
tion of a specialist on equity, is a treatise on the Law of Mortgages.
These appointments, which gave a shock to academic circles in the
United States, do not allow an outside observer to feel any great op-
timism for the future either of the Milner Group or of the great institu-
tions which it has influenced. It would seem that the great idealistic
adventure which began with Toynbee and Milner in 1875 had slowly
ground its way to a finish of bitterness and ashes.

Appendix:

A Tentative Roster of

the Milner Group

The following lists are tentative in the sense that they are in-
complete and erroneous. The errors are more likely in the attribution
of persons to one circle of the Group rather than another, and are less
likely in the attribution to the Group of persons who are not members
at all. For the names given I have sufficient evidence to convince me
that they are members of the Group, although I would not in many
cases feel competent to insist that the persons concerned knew that they
were members of a secret group. The evidence on which this list is
based is derived from documentary evidence, from private informa-
tion, and from circumstantial evidence.

Persons are listed in each group on the basis of general impression
rather than exact demarcation, because the distinction between the
two is rather vague and varies from time to time. For example, I know
for a fact that Sir Alfred Zimmern and Lord Cecil of Chelwood at-
tended meetings of the inner circle in the period before 1920, but I
have attributed them to the outer circle because this appears to be the
more accurate designation for the long period since 1920.

Within each list I have placed the names of the various individuals in
order of chronology and of importance. In some cases where I sus-
pected a person of being a member without having any very convincing
evidence, I have enclosed the name in brackets.

A. The Society of the Elect

Cecil John Rhodes

Nathan Rothschild, Baron Rothschild

Sir Harry Johnston

William T. Stead

Reginald Brett, Viscount Esher

Alfred Milner, Viscount Milner

311

312 / Appendix

B. F. Hawksley

Thomas Brassey, Lord Brassey

Edmund Garrett

[Sir Edward Cook]

Alfred Beit

Sir Abe Bailey

Albert Grey, Earl Grey

Archibald Primrose, Earl of Rosebery

Arthur James Balfour

Sir George R. Parkin

Philip Lyttelton Gell

Sir Henry Birchenough

Sir Reginald Sothern Holland

Arthur Lionel Smith

Herbert A. L. Fisher

William Waldegrave Palmer, Earl of Selborne

[Sir Alfred Lyttelton]

Sir Patrick Duncan

Robert Henry Brand, Baron Brand

Philip Kerr, Marquess of Lothian

Lionel Curtis

Geoffrey Dawson

Edward Grigg, Baron Altrincham

Jan C. Smuts

Leopold Amery

Waldorf Astor, Viscount Astor

Nancy Astor, Lady Astor

B. The Association of Helpers

1. The Inner Circle
Sir Patrick Duncan
Robert Henry Brand, Baron Brand
Philip Kerr, Marquess of Lothian
Lionel Curtis
William L. Hichens
Geoffrey Dawson
Edward Grigg, Baron Altrincham
Herbert A. L. Fisher
Leopold Amery
Richard Feetham
Hugh A. Wyndham
Sir Dougal Malcolm

Appendix / 313

Basil Williams

Basil Kellett Long

Sir Abe Bailey

Jan C. Smuts

Sir William Marris

James S. Meston, Baron Meston

Malcolm Hailey, Baron Hailey

Flora Shaw, Lady Lugard

Sir Reginald Coupland

Waldorf Astor, Viscount Astor

Nancy Astor, Lady Astor

Maurice Hankey, Baron Hankey

Arnold J. Toynbee

Laurence F. Rushbrook Williams

Henry Vincent Hodson

Vincent Todd Harlow

The Outer Circle
John Buchan, Baron Tweedsmuir
Sir Fabian Ware
Sir Alfred Zimmern
Gilbert Murray

Robert Cecil, Viscount Cecil of Chelwood
Sir James W. Headlam-Morley
Frederick J.N. Thesiger, Viscount Chelmsford
Sir Valentine Chirol
Edward F. L. Wood, Earl of Halifax
Sir [James] Arthur Salter
Sir Arthur H. D. R. Steel-Maitland
William G. A. Ormsby-Gore, Baron Harlech
Dame Edith Lyttelton, Mrs. Alfred Lyttelton
Frederick Lugard, Baron Lugard
Sir f Leander] Starr Jameson
Henry W. C. Davis
John A. Simon, Viscount Simon
Samuel J. G. Hoare, Viscount Templewood
Maurice P. A. Hankey, Baron Hankey
Wilson Harris
[Francis Clarke]
William G. S. Adams
[William K. Hancock]
Ernest L. Woodward
Sir Harold Butler

314 / Appendix

Kenneth N. Bell

Sir Donald B. Somervell

Sir Maurice L. Gwyer

Charles R. S. Harris

Sir Edward R. Peacock

Sir Cyril J. Radcliffe

John W. Wheeler-Bennett

Robert J. Stopford

Robert M. Barrington-Ward

[Kenneth C. Wheare]

Edward H. Carr

Malcolm MacDonald

Godfrey Elton, Baron Elton

Sir Neill Malcolm

Freeman Freeman-Thomas, Viscount Willingdon

Isaiah Berlin

Roger M. Makins

Sir Arthur Willert

Ivison S. Macadam

3. Members in other countries

a. Canada

Arthur J. Glazebrook

Sir George Parkin

Vincent Massey

George P. de T. Glazebrook

Percy Corbett

[Sir Joseph Flavelle]

b. United States

George Louis Beer
Frank Aydelotte
Jerome Greene
[Clarence Steit]

c. South Africa

Jan C. Smuts
Sir Patrick Duncan
Sir Abe Bailey
Basil K. Long
Richard Feetham
[Sir James Rose-Innes]

Appendix / 315

d. Australia

Sir Thomas Bavin
Sir Frederic Eggleston
[Dudley D. Braham]

e. New Zealand

Sir James Allen
William Downie Stewart
Arthur R. Atkinson

f. Germany

Helmuth James von Moltke
Adam von Trott zu Solz

Notes

Chapter 1

•The sources of this information and a more detailed examination of the
organization and personnel of the Rhodes secret society will be found in Chapter
3 below.

2 On Parkin, see the biography (1929) started by Sir John Willison and fin-
ished by Parkin's son-in-law, William L. Grant. Also see the sketches of both
Parkin and Milner in the Dictionary of National Biography. The debate in the
Oxford Union which first brought Parkin to Milner's attention is mentioned in
Herbert Asquith's (Lord Oxford and Asquith) Memories and Reflections (2 vols.,
Boston, 1928), I, 26.

'The ideas for social service work among the poor and certain other ideas
held by Toynbee and Milner were derived from the teachings of John Ruskin,
who first came to Oxford as a professor during their undergraduate days. The
two young men became ardent disciples of Ruskin and were members of his
road-building group in the summer of 1870. The standard biography of Ruskin
was written by a protege of Milner's, Edward Cook. The same man edited the
complete collection of Ruskin's works in thirty-eight volumes. See Lord Oxford
and Asquith, Memories and Reflections (2 vols., Boston, 1928), I, 48. Cook's
sketch in the Dictionary of National Biography was written by Asquith's in-
timate friend and biographer, J. A. Spender.

4 The quotation is from Cecil Headlam, ed., The Milner Papers (2 vols.,
London, 1931-1933), I, 15. There exists no biography of Milner, and all of the
works concerned with his career have been written by members of the Milner
Group and conceal more than they reveal. The most important general sketches
of his life are the sketch in the Dictionary of National Biography, the obituary in
The Times (May 1925), and the obituary in The Round Table (June 1925, XV,
427-430). His own point of view must be sought in his speeches and essays. Of
these, the chief collections are The Nation and the Empire (Boston, 1913) and
Questions of the Hour (London, 1923). Unfortunately, the speeches after 1913
and all the essays which appeared in periodicals are still uncollected. This
neglect of one of the most important figures of the twentieth century is probably
deliberate, part of the policy of secrecy practiced by the Milner Group.

317

318 / Notes
Chapter 2

'A. C. Johnson, Viscount Halifax (New York, 1941), 54. Inasmuch as Lord
Halifax assisted the author of this biography and gave to him previously un-
published material to insert in it, we are justified in considering this an
"authorized" biography and giving its statements considerable weight. The
author is aware of the existence of the Milner Group and attributes much of
Lord Halifax's spectacular career to his connection with the Group.

2 H. H. Henson, Retrospect of an Unimportant Life (2 vols., London,
1942-1943), II, 66.

3 C. Hobhouse, Oxford as It Was and as It Is Today (London, 1939), 18.

4 On the role of Charles Hardinge in foreign policy, see A. L. Kennedy,
"Lord Hardinge of Penshurst," in The Quarterly Review (January 1945),
CCLXXXIII, 97-104, and Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst,
Old Diplomacy; Reminiscences (London, 1947). Although not mentioned again
in this work, A. L. Kennedy appears to be a member of the Milner Group.

5 Lord Ernie, Whippingham to Westminster (London, 1938), 248.

6 Lionel Curtis, Dyarchy (Oxford, 1920), 54.

7 Another exception was "Bron" Lucas (Auberon Herbert, Lord Lucas and
Dingwall), son of Auberon Herbert, the brother of Lord Carnavon. "Bron"
went from Balliol to South Africa as a Times correspondent in the Boer War and
lost a leg from overzealous devotion to the task. A close friend of John Buchan
and Raymond Asquith, he became a Liberal M.P. through the latter's influence
but had to go to the Upper House in 1905, when he inherited two titles from his
mother's brother. He was subsequently private secretary to Haldane (1908),
Under Secretary for War (1908-1911), Under Secretary for the Colonies (1911),
Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Agriculture (1911-1914), and President
of the Board of Agriculture (1914-1915). He thus became a member of the
Cabinet while only thirty -eight years old. He resigned to join the Royal Flying
Corps and was killed in 1916, about the same time as Raymond Asquith. Both of
these, had they lived, would probably have become members of the Milner
Group. Asquith was already a Fellow of All Souls (1901-1916). On "Bron"
Lucas, see the autobiographies of Lords Asquith and Tweedsmuir and the arti-
cle in the memorial volume to Balliol's dead in the First World War.

8 On these clubs, see Lord Oxford and Asquith, Memories and Reflections (2
vols., Boston, 1928), I, 311-325.

^he chief published references to the existence of the Milner Group from
the pens of members will be found in the obituary notes on deceased members in
The Round Table and in the sketches in the Dictionary of National Biography.
In the former, see the notes on Milner, Hickens, Lord Lothian, A. J.
Glazebrook, Sir Thomas Bavin, Sir Patrick Duncan, Sir Abe Bailey, etc. See also
the references in the published works of Lionel Curtis, John Buchan (Lord
Tweedsmuir), John Dove, etc. Quotations to this effect from John Buchan and
from Lord Asquith will be found at the end of Chapter 3 below. The best
published reference to the Milner Group is in M. S. Geen, The Making of the
Union of South Africa (London, 1946), 150-152. The best account originating in
the Group itself is in the article "Twenty-five Years" in The Round Table for
September 1935, XV, 653-659.

Notes / 319
Chapter 3

'This section is based on W. T. Stead, The Last Will and Testament of Cecil
John Rhodes (London, 1902); Sir Francis Wylie's three articles in the American
Oxonian (April 1944), XXXI, 65-69; (July 1944), XXXI, 129-138; and (January
1945), XXXII, 1-11; F. Aydelotte, The American Rhodes Scholars (Princeton,
1946); and the biographies and memoirs of the men mentioned.

2 No such claim is made by Sir Francis Wylie, from whose articles Dr.
Aydelotte derived most of the material for his first chapter. Sir Francis merely
mentions the secret society in connection with the early wills and then drops the
whole subject.

3 W. T. Stead, The Last Will and Testament of Cecil John Rhodes (London,
1902), 110-111. The statement of 1896 to Brett is in Journals and Letters of
Reginald, Viscount Esher (4 vols., London, 1934-1938), I, 197.

4 Dr. Aydelotte quotes at length from a letter which Rhodes sent to Stead in
1891, but he does not quote the statements which Stead made about it when he
published it in 1902. In this letter he spoke about the project of federal union
with the United States and said, "The only feasible [way] to carry this idea out is
a secret one (society) gradually absorbing the wealth of the world to be devoted
to such an object." At the end of this document Stead wrote: "Mr. Rhodes has
never to my knowledge said a word nor has he ever written a syllable, that
justifies the suggestion that he surrendered the aspirations which were expressed
in this letter of 1891. So far from this being the case, in the long discussions
which took place between us in the last years of his life, he reaffirmed as em-
phatically as at first his unshaken conviction as to the dream — if you like to call
it so — a vision, which had ever been the guiding star of his life." See W. T.
Stead, The Last Will and Testament of Cecil John Rhodes (London, 1902),
73-77.

5 Sir John Willison, Sir George Parkin (London, 1929), 234.

6 This paragraph and the two preceding it are from Sir Frederick Whyte,
The Life of W. T. Stead (2 vols., Boston, 1925), 270-272 and 39.

7 See Journals and Letters of Reginald, Viscount Esher (4 vols., London,
1938), I, 149-150. It should be noted that the excision in the entry for 3
February marked by three points (. . .) was made by Lord Esher's son when he
edited the journals for publication.

8 See F. Whyte, Life of W. T. Stead (2 vols., Boston, 1925), 199-212.

9 No mention of the secret society is to be found in either Sir Harry Johnston,
The Story of My Life (London, 1923), or in Alex. Johnston, Life and Letters of
Sir Harry Johnston (London, 1929). The former work does contain an account
of Johnston's break with Rhodes on page 497. More details are on pages 145-148
of the later work, including a record of Rhodes's saying, "I will smash you,
Johnston, for this." Johnston was convinced that it was a result of this enmity
that Milner rather than he was chosen to be High Commissioner of South Africa
in 1897. See pages 338-339.

'"Rhodes's reason for eliminating him (given in the January 1901 codicil to his
will) was "on account of the extraordinary eccentricity of Mr. Stead, though
having always a great respect for him, but feeling the objects of my Will would
be embarrassed by his views." Milner 's reasons (given in the "Stead Memorial"

320 / Notes

number of The Review of Reviews, May 1912) were his "lack of balance," which
was "his Achilles heel." See also the letter of 12 April 1902 from Edmund Gar-
rett to Stead, quoted below, from F. Whyte, The Life of W. T. Stead (2 vols.,
Boston, 1925), 211.

"The quotation is from the sketch of Lord Esher in the Dictionary of Na-
tional Biography. The other quotations from Brett are from The Journals and
Letters of Reginald, Viscount Esher (4 vols., London, 1934-1938).

12 E. T. Cook, Edmund Garrett (London, 1909), 158. The excision in this let-
ter marked by three points (. . .) was made by Cook. Cook was a protege of
Milner's, found in New College, invited to contribute to the Pall Mall Gazette in
1881, and added to the staff as an editor in August 1883, when Milner was
acting as editor-in-chief, during the absence of Morley and Stead. See F. Whyte,
The Life of W. T. Stead (2 vols., Boston, 1925), I, 94. Cook remained close to
Milner for many years. On 4 October 1899 Lord Esher wrote to his son a letter
in which he said: "Cook is the Editor of the Daily News and is in close touch
with Milner and his friends" —Journals and Letters of Reginald, Viscount Esher
(4 vols., London, 1938), I, 240.

1S F. Whyte, Life of W. T. Stead (2 vols., Boston, 1925), 211. The quotation
in the next paragraph is from the same place.

14 As an example of this and an example of the way in which the secret society
functioned in the early period, see the following passage from the Journals and
Letters of Reginald, Viscount Esher (4 vols., London, 1938), under the date 21
November 1892: "I went to London on Friday and called on Rhodes. He had
asked me to do so. . . . Rhodes asked for the Government carriage of his
telegraph poles and 200 Sikhs at Blantyre. Then he will make the telegraph. He
would like a gunboat on Tanganyika. I stayed there to lunch. Then saw
Rosebery. He was in good spirits." From Sir Harry Johnston's autobiography, it
is clear that the 200 Sikhs were for him.

15 S. G. Millen, Rhodes (London, 1934), 341-342.

16 In the House of Commons, Maguire was a supporter of Parnell, acting on
orders from Rhodes, who had given £10,000 to Parnell's cause in 1888. Rhodes's
own explanation of why he supported Parnell is a typical Milner Group state-
ment. He said that he gave the money "since in Mr. Parnell's cause. ... 1 believe
he's the key to the Federal System, on the basis of perfect Home Rule in every
part of the Empire." This quotation is from S. G. Millin, Rhodes (London,
1934), 112, and is based on W. T. Stead, The Last Will and Testament of Cecil
John Rhodes (London, 1902).

l7 The first quotation is from Edmund Garrett, "Milner and Rhodes," in The
Empire and the Century (London, 1905), 478. According to The Times
obituary of Milner, 14 May 1925, Rhodes repeated these sentiments in different
words on his deathbed, 26 March 1902. The statement to Stead will be found in
W. T. Stead, The Last Will and Testament of Cecil John Rhodes (London,
1902), 108.

18 See Cecil Headlam, ed., The Milner Papers, 1897-1905 (2 vols., London,
1931-1933), II, 412-413; the unpublished material is at New College, Oxford, in
Milner Papers, XXXVIII, ii, 200.

Chapter 4

•The obituary of Patrick Duncan in The Round Table (September 1943),
XXXIII, 303-305, reads in part: "Duncan became the doyen of the band of

Notes / 321

brothers, Milner's young men, who were nicknamed . . . 'The Kindergarten,'
then in the first flush of youthful enthusiasm. It is a fast ageing and dwindling
band now; but it has played a part in the Union of South Africa colonies, and it
is responsible for the foundation and conduct of The Round Table. For forty
years and more, so far as the vicissitudes of life have allowed, it has kept
together; and always, while looking up to Lord Milner and to his successor in
South Africa, the late Lord Selborne, as its political Chief, has revered Patrick
Duncan as the Captain of the band." According to R. H. Brand, ed., The Let-
ters of John Dove (London, 1938), Duncan was coming to England to the
meetings of the Group as late was 1932.

H'he above list of eighteen names does not contain all the members of the
Kindergarten. A complete list would include: (1) Harry Wilson (Sir Harry after
1908), who was a "Seeley lecturer" with Parkin in the 1890s; was chief private
secretary to Joseph Chamberlain in 1895-1897; was legal adviser to the Colonial
Office and to Milner in 1897-1901; was Secretary and Colonial Secretary to the
Orange River Colony in 1901-1907; was a member of the Intercolonial Council
and of the Railway Committee in 1903-1907. (2) E. B. Sargant, who organized
the school system of South Africa for Milner in 1900-1904 and was Director of
Education for both the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony in 1902-1904;
he wrote a chapter for The Empire and the Century in 1905. (3) Gerard Craig
Sellar, who died in 1929, and on whom no information is available. There was a
Craig-Sellar Fellowship in his honor at Balliol in 1946. (4) Oscar Ferris
Watkins, a Bible Clerk at All Souls at the end of the nineteenth century, re-
ceived a M.A. from this college in 1910; he was in the South African Con-
stabulary in 1902-1904; was in the Transvaal Civil Service in 1904-1907; was in
the East African Protectorate Service and the E.A. Civil Service from 1908, be-
ing a District Commissioner in 1914, Acting Chief Native Commissioner in
1920-1927, a member of the Legislative Council in 1920-1922, Deputy Chief
Native Commissioner of Kenya in 1921-1927; he was Director of Military
Labour under Smuts in German East Africa in 1914-1918. (5) Percy Girouard
(later Sir Percy) was chairman of the Egyptian Railway Board in 1898-1899;
was Director of Railways in the Boer War in 1899-1902; was Commissioner of
Railways and Head of the Central South African Railways in 1902-1904; was
High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria in 1907-1908 and Governor in
1908-1909; was Governor of the East African Protectorate in 1909-1912; was
director of Armstrong, Whitworth and Company in 1912-1915; and was Direc-
tor General of Munitions Supply in 1914-1915. He was fired by Lloyd George
for inefficiency in 1915.

'Douglas Malcolm's sister in 1907 married Neill Malcolm (since 1919 Major
General Sir Neill Malcolm), who was a regular army officer from 1889 to his
retirement in 1924. He was on the British Military Mission to Berlin in
1919-1921; Commanding General in Malaya, 1921-1924; a founder of the
RIIA, of which he was chairman from 1926 (succeeding Lord Meston) to 1935
(succeeded by Lord Astor). He was High Commissioner for German Refugees in
1936-1938, with R. M. Makins (member of All Souls and the Milner Group and
later British Minister in Washington) as his chief British subordinate. He is
president of the British North Borneo Company, of which Dougal Malcolm is
vice-president.

Ian Malcolm (Sir Ian since 1919), a brother of Neill Malcolm, was an attache
at Berlin, Paris, and Petersburg in 1891-1896; and M.P. in 1895-1906 and again
1910-1919; assistant private secretary to Lord Salisbury (1895-1900); parlia-
mentary private secretary to the Chief Secretary for Ireland (George Wynd-
ham) in 1901-1903; Secretary to the Union Defence League, organized by

322 / Notes

Walter Long, in 1906-1910; a Red Cross officer in Europe and North America
(1914-1917); on Balfour's mission to the United States in 1917; private secretary
to Balfour during the Peace Conference (1919); and British representative on the
Board of Directors of the Suez Canal Company. He wrote Walter Long's
biography in the Dictionary of National Biography.

4 See W. B. Worsfold, The Reconstruction of the New Colonies under Lord
Milner (2 vols., London, 1913), II, 207-222 and 302-419.

5 The last quotation is from Dyarchy (Oxford, 1920), liii. The other are from
The Problem of the Commonwealth (London, 1915), 18, and 200-219.

6 Fisher was one of the most important members of the Milner Group, a fact
which would never be gathered from the recent biography written by David
Ogg, Herbert Fisher, 1865-1940 (London, 1947). He was associated with
members of the Group, or persons close to it all his life. At New College in the
period 1884-1888, he was a student of W. L. Courtney, whose widow, Dame
Janet Courtney, was later close to the Group. He became a Fellow of New Col-
lege in 1888, along with Gilbert Murray, also a member of the Group. His
pupils at New College included Curtis, Kerr, Brand, Malcolm, and Hichens in
the first few years of teaching; the invitation to South Africa in 1908 came
through Curtis; his articles on the trip were published in The Times. He sailed to
India in 1913 with Herbert Baker of the Group (Rhodes's architect). He refused
the post of Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1918, so it was given to Amery's
brother-in-law; he refused the post of Assistant Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs in December 1918, when Robert Cecil resigned. He played a certain role
in drafting the Montagu-Chelmsford Report of 1919 and the Government of
Ireland Bill of 1921, and piloted the latter through Commons. He refused the
post of Ambassador to Washington in 1919. Nevertheless, he did not see eye to
eye with the inner core of the Group on either religion or protection, since he
was an atheist and a free-trader to the end. His book on Christian Science
almost caused a break with some members of the Group.

7 H. H. Henson, Memoirs of Sir William Anson (Oxford, 1920), 212.

"Cecil Headlam, ed., The Milner Papers, 1897-1905 (2 vols., London,
1931-1933), II, 501.

9 R. H. Brand, The Union of South Africa (Oxford, 1909), 39.
'"Smuts was frequently used by the Milner Group to enunciate its policies in
public (as, for example, in his speeches of 15 May 1917 and 13 November 1934).
The fact that he was speaking for the Milner Group was generally recognized by
the upper classes in England, was largely ignored by the masses in England, and
was virtually unknown to Americans. Lord Davies assumed this as beyond the
need of proof in an article which he published in The Nineteenth Century in
January 1935. He was attacking the Milner Group's belief that British defense
could be based on the Dominions and the United States and especially on its ef-
forts to reduce the League of Nations to a simple debating society. He pointed
out the need for an international police force, then asked, "Will the Dominions
and the United States volunteer as special constables? And, if they refuse, does it
mean that Great Britain is precluded from doing so? The reply of The Round
Table is 'yes*' and the most recent exposition of its policy is contained in the
speech delivered by General Smuts at the dinner given in his honor by the Royal
Institute of International Affairs on November 13"— The Nineteenth Century
January 1935), CXVII, 51.

Smuts 's way in imperial affairs was much smoothed by the high opinion
which Lord Esher held of him; see, for example, The Journals and Letters of
Reginald Viscount Esher (4 vols., London, 1938), IV, 101, 224, and 254.
"Lord Oxford and Asquith, Memories and Reflections 1852-1927 (2 vols.,

Notes / 323

Boston, 1928), I, 213-214. Asquith was a member of the Cecil Bloc and of "The
Souls." He was a lifelong friend of both Balfour and Milner. It was the former
who persuaded Asquith to write his memoirs, after talking the matter over
privately with Margot Asquith one evening while Asquith himself was at
Grillions. When Asquith married Margot Tennant in 1894, the witnesses who
signed the marriage certificates were A. J. Balfour, W. E. Gladstone, Lord
Rosebery, Charles Tennant, H. J. Tennant, and R. B. Haldane. Asquith's
friendship with Milner went back to their undergraduate days. In his
autobiography Asquith wrote (pp. 210-211): "We sat together at the Scholar's
table in Hall for three years. We then formed a close friendship, and were for
many years on intimate terms and in almost constant contact with one another.
... At Oxford we both took an active part at the Union in upholding the un-
fashionable Liberal cause. ... In my early married days [1877-1885] he used
often to come to my house at Hampstead for a frugal Sunday supper when we
talked over political and literary matters, for the most part in general agree-
ment." For Milner 's relationship with Margot Tennant before her marriage to
Asquith in 1894, see her second fling at autobiography, More or Less about
Myself (London, 1932). On 22 April 1908, W. T. Stead wrote to Lord Esher
that Mrs. Asquith had three portraits over her bed: Rosebery, Balfour, and
Milner. See The Journals and Letters of Reginald, Viscount Esher (4 vols. , Lon-
don, 1938), II, 304.

Chapter 5

] The Times's obituary on Milner (14 May 1925), obviously written by a per-
son who knew the situation well (probably either Dawson or Amery), said; "He
would never in any circumstances have accepted office again. . . . That he
always disliked it, assumed it with reluctance, and laid it down with infinite
relief, is a fact about which in his case there was never the smallest affectation."
It will be recalled that Milner had refused the Colonial Secretaryship in 1903;
about six years later, according to The Times obituary, he refused a Unionist of-
fer of a Cabinet post in the next Conservative government, unless the party
would pledge itself to establish compulsory military training. This it would not
do. It is worth recalling that another initiate, Lord Esher, shared Milner 's fond-
ness for compulsory military training, as well as his reluctance to hold public of-
fice.

2 E. Garrett, The Empire and the Century (London, 1905), 481. Eight years
later, in 1913, in the introduction to a collection of his speeches called The Na-
tion and the Empire (Boston, 1913), Milner said almost the same thing. Milner 's
distaste for party politics was shared by Lord Esher and Lord Grey to such an
extent as to become a chief motivating force in their lives. See H. Begbie, Albert,
Fourth Earl Grey (London, 1918), especially p. 52, and The Journals and Let-
ters of Reginald, Viscount Esher (4 vols., London, 1938), passim.

3 Letter of Milner to Congdon, 23 November 1904, in Cecil Headlam, ed.,
The Milner Papers (2 vols., London, 1931-1933), II, 506.

"Cecil Headlam, ed., The Milner Papers (2 vols., London, 1931-1933), I,
267 and 288; II, 505. Milner's antipathy for party politics was generally shared
by the inner circle of the Milner Group. The future Lord Lothian, writing in
The Round Table, August 1911, was very critical of party politics and used the
same arguments against it as Milner. He wrote: "At any moment a party
numbering among its numbers all the people best qualified to manage foreign

324 / Notes

affairs may be cast from office, for reasons which have nothing to do with their
conduct of these matters. ... If the people of Great Britain manage to keep at
the head of the great Imperial offices of State, men who will command the con-
fidence of the Dominions, and who pursue steadfastly a . . . successful policy,
and if the people of the Dominions are tolerant and far-sighted enough to accept
such a policy as their own, the present arrangement may last. Does history give
us any reason for expecting that the domestic party system will produce so great
a combination of good fortune and good management?" (The Round Table, I,
414-418).

In the introduction to The Nation and the Empire, written in 1913, Milner
expressed himself in a similar vein.

5 Marquess of Crewe, Lord Rosebery (2 vols., London, 1931), 615.

B See John, Viscount Morley, Recollections (2 vols., New York, 1917), II.

■The fact that a small "secret" group controlled the nominations for
Chancellor of Oxford was widely recognized in Britain, but not frequently men-
tioned publicly. In May 1925 the Earl of Birkenhead wrote a letter to The Times
to protest against this usurpation by a nonofficial group and was answered, in
The Times, by a letter which stated that, when the group was formed after the
interruption of the First World War, he had been invited to join it but had never
acknowledged the invitationl Milner's nomination was made by a group that
met in New College, under the chairmanship of H. A. L. Fisher, on 5 May 1925.
There were about thirty present, including Fisher, Lord Astor, Lord Ernie,
Steel-Maidand, Pember, Wilkinson, Brand, Lucas, M. G. Glazebrook, Sir
Herbert Warren (classmate and friend of Milner's), Archbishop Davidson, Cyril
Bailey, etc. The same group, according to Lord Halifax's biographer,
nominated Lord Halifax to the Chancellorship in 1933.

8 The editors were assisted in the work of producing the two volumes by
Margaret Toynbee. The influence of the Milner Group can be discerned in the
list of acknowledgments in the preface to Weaver's volume. Among eighteen
names listed may be found those of Cyril Bailey (Fellow of Balliol, 1902-1939,
and member of the Ministry of Munitions, 1915-1918); C. R. M. F. Cruttwell
(member of All Souls and the Round Table Group, Principal of Hertford Col-
lege since 1930); Geoffrey Dawson, H. A. L. Fisher; and Ernest Swinton
(Fellow of All Souls, 1925-1939). Apparently these persons decided what names
should be included in the Dictionary.

Chapter 6

'The Milner Group's control over these lectures appears as much from the
list of presiding officers as from the list of lecturers, thus:

President Speaker Title

A. D. Steel-Mai tland Michael Sadler The Universities and the War

Lord Bryce Charles Lucas The Empire and Democracy

Lord Milner A. L. Smith The People and the Duties of Empire

Lord Selborne H. A. L. Fisher Imperial Administration

Earl St. Aldwyn Philip Kerr The Commonwealth and the Empire

Lord Sumner G. R. Parkin The Duty of the Empire in the World

2 Buckle came to The Times staff in 1880 because of his All Souls connection,
being recommended by Sir William Anson, according to the official History oj

Notes / 325

The Times. He was apparently selected to be the future editor from the begin-
ning, since he was given a specially created position as "confidential assistant" to
the editor, at a salary "decidedly higher than an Oxford graduate with a good
degree could reasonably hope to gain in a few years in any of the regular profes-
sions." See The History of The Times (4 vols., London, 1935), II, 529. Buckle
may have been the link between Lord Salisbury and The Times, since they could
easily meet at All Souls. Obviously The History of the Times, which devotes a
full volume of 862 pages to the period of Buckle's editorship, does not tell the full
story on Buckle, since he rarely appears on the scene as an actor and would
seem, from the History, to have been ignorant of most of what was happening in
his offices (the Rhodes-Jameson connection, for example). This is difficult to
believe.

The History of The Times is unsatisfactory on other grounds as well. For ex-
ample, it is not possible from this work to construct a complete record of who
held various staff positions. We are told, for example, that Flora Shaw became
head of the Colonial Department in 1890, but that ends that department as far
as the volume is concerned. There is considerable material on Miss Shaw,
especially in the chapters on the Transvaal, but we never find out who was her
successor, or when she left the staff, or if (as appears likely) the Colonial Depart-
ment was a creation for her occupancy only and did not survive her (undated)
withdrawal from the staff; similarly the exact dates and positions of men like
Amery and Grigg are not clear.

*The History of The Times (4 vols., London, 1935), III, 755.

4 There were others, but they are not of primary, or even secondary impor-
tance in the Milner Group. We might mention Aubrey L. Kennedy (son of Sir
John Kennedy of the diplomatic service), who was on The Times staff from 1910
to 1942, in military intelligence in 1914-1919, diplomatic correspondent for the
BBC in 1942-1945, and an influential member of Chatham House since 1919.

5 E. Moberly Bell, Flora Shaw (London, 1947), 115.

6 At the suggestion of the British Foreign Office, copies of these articles were
circulated in America and in Europe. See E. Moberly Bell, Flora Shaw (Lon-
don, 1947), 228.

7 The History of The Times (4 vols., London, 1935), III, 212, 214.

8 A11 quotations are from The History of The Times (4 vols., London, 1935),
III, chapters 7 and 9.

"See E. T. Cook, Edmund Garrett (London, 1909), 118-119. The difference
of opinion between Stead and the others can be traced in F. Whyte, The Life of
W. T. Stead (2 vols., Boston, 1925), Ch. 21.

The failure of the plotters in Johannesburg to revolt so haunted the plotters
elsewhere that they salved their wounds by fantasy. Stead wrote this fantasy for
The Review of Reviews annual of January 1897, and consulted with Garrett,
who had similar plans for the Christmas 1896 number of the Cape Times. In
Stead's story, the Jameson fiasco was to be turned into a smashing success by a
heroic South African editor, who, when all appeared lost, would rush to Johan-
nesburg, stir up the revolt, and save the day. Garrett, who was to be the original
model for the hero, wrote back: "A suggestion which will help to keep us
distinct, give you a much grander theme, and do something for C.J.R. which no
one has yet dared — I went nearer to 'Cecil Rhodes' Dream' but that was a hint
only: viz. Make world see what he was driving at and what would have come if
all had come off and if Johannesburg had played up. ... As to making me the
hero. No. . . . But he must be not only me but you also, and A. Milner, and a
few more rolled into one; and he must do what I dreamed of doing but time and
space prevented." For the name of this hero Garrett suggested combining the

326 / Notes

three names into "Milner Garsted" or "Milstead." Ultimately, Stead made the
hero a woman. The new model was probably Flora Shaw. The story appeared
with the tide "The History of a Mystery." See F. Whyte, The Life of W. T.
Stead, 94-95

l0 Even after the view of the majority prevailed, Stead refused to yield and
published his version of a proper defense in The Scandal of the South African
Committee (London, 1899). It was Stead's belief that preparation for "a raid"
was a patriotic act which, if confessed, would have won public acclaim rather
than condemnation.

1 'On this see Journals and Letters of Reginald, Viscount Esher, (4 vols. , Lon-
don, 1938), I, 196-202.

l2 The History of The Times (4 vols., London, 1935), III, 244. It is clear from
Miss Moberly Bell's biography of Flora Shaw (183-188) that Buckle knew this
fact at least by 24 May 1897, although Miss Shaw had previously written him a
letter stating explicitly (probably for the record) that she had been acting
without either Buckle's or Bell's knowledge. The night before Miss Shaw
testified before the Select Committee, Buckle sent her a detailed letter of instruc-
tion on how to answer the committee's questions.

13 W. S. Blunt, My Diaries (London, 1932), 226.

14 See The History of The Times (4 vols., London, 1935), III, 315-316.

Chapter 7

'L. Curtis, Dyarchy (Oxford, 1920), 41.

There can be no doubt that the original inspiration for the Round Table
movement was to be found in anti-German feeling. In fact, there are some in-
dications that this was the primary motive and that the stated purpose of work-
ing for imperial federation was, to some extent at least, a mask. The Round
Table, in 1940, in its obituary of Abe Bailey (September 1940, XXX, 743-746),
attributes its foundation to this cause as follows: "German ambitions to destroy
and supplant the British Commonwealth were manifest to those who had eyes to
see. . . . [These asked] 'Can not all the Dominions be brought to realise the com-
mon danger that confronts them as much as it confronts Great Britain and think
out in mutual discussion the means of uniting all the force and resolution of the
Empire in its defense?' To the solution of this question the founders of the Closer
Union Societies resolved to apply a similar procedure. Round Table Groups
were established in all the British Dominions to study the problem." A similar
cause for the founding appeared in The Round Table as recently as the issue of
September 1948.

The original leader of the Round Table Groups in New Zealand was ap-
parently James Allen (Sir James after 1917), who had been educated in
England, at Clifton School and Cambridge University, and was an M. P. in New
Zealand from 1887 to 1920. He was Minister of Defense (1912-1920), Minister of
Finance and Education (1912-1915), and Minister of Finance (1919-1920),
before he became in 1920, New Zealand's High Commissioner in London. He
was a member of the Royal Institute of International Affairs.

In the Round Table Group for New Zealand, Allen was soon supplemented
and eventually succeeded by William Downie-Stewart as the most important
member. Stewart was at the time Mayor of Dunedin (1913) but soon began a
twenty-one-year period as an M.P. (1914-1935). He was also Minister of
Customs (1921-1928); Minister of Internal Affairs (1921-1924); Minister of In-

Notes / 327

dustries and Commerce (1923-1926); Attorney General (1926); Minister of
Finance (1926-1928, 1931-1933); Acting Prime Minister (1926); New Zealand
delegate to the Ottawa Conference (1932); Vice-Chancellor of Otago Univer-
sity; prominent businessman, and president of the New Zealand Institute of In-
ternational Affairs (1935- ). According to Dove's letters, he attended a Milner
Group discussion meeting at Lord Lothian's country house in October 1932.

'The chief leaders in Australia were Thomas Bavin (Sir Thomas after 1933)
and Frederic W. Eggleston (Sir Frederic since 1941). The former, who died in
1941 (see obituary in The Round Table for December 1941), was a barrister in
New South Wales from 1897; Professor of Law and Modern History at the
University of Tasmania (1900-1901); private secretary to the first Prime
Minister of Australia, Sir Edmund Barton, in 1901-1904; Secretary and Chief
Law Officer of Australia in 1907; It. commander in naval intelligence in
1916-1918; an Australian M.P. in 1919-1935; held many cabinet posts in New
South Wales from 1922 to 1930, ending as Premier (1927-1930). He finished his
career as a judge of the Supreme Court in 1935-1941 . He was one of the original
members of the Round Table Group in Australia, a regular contributor to The
Round Table, and an important member of the Australian Institute of Interna-
tional Affairs.

Eggleston was a barrister from 1897; a member, correspondent, and chief
agent in Australia for The Round Table from 1911; a member of the Legislative
Assembly of Australia, (1920-1927); Minister for Railways, (1924-1926); chair-
man of the Commonwealth Grants Commission, (1934-1941); Minister of
China (1941-1944) and to the United States (1944-1946). He was one of the
founders and chief officers of the Australian Institute of International Affairs
and its representative on the council of the Institute of Pacific Relations.

"Glazebrook, although virtually unknown, was a very important figure in
Canadian life, especially in financial and imperialist circles, up to his death in
1940. For many years he had a practical monopoly in foreign exchange transac-
tions in Toronto, through his firm, Glazebrook and Cronyn (founded 1900).
Like most members of the Milner Group, he was interested in adult education,
workers' education, and university management. He promoted all of these in
Toronto, lecturing himself to the Workers' Educational Association, and at the
University of Toronto where he was assistant Professor of Banking and Finance
(1926-1937). He was the chief adviser of leading bankers of Canada, and of
London and New York bankers on Canadian matters. The Round Table says of
him: "Through his friendship with Lord Milner and others he had at one time a
wide acquaintance among the prominent figures in British public life, and it is
well-known to his intimates that on numerous occasions British ministers,
anxious to secure reliable information about certain Canadian affairs through
unofficial channels, had recourse of Glazebrook. ... By precept and example he
exercised an immense influence for good upon the characters and outlook of a
number of young Canadians who had the privilege of his society and knew him
as 'The Sage.' Some of them, who have come to high place in the life of the
Dominion, will not be slow to acknowledge the value of the inspiration and
enlightenment which they derived from him. Continually he preached the doc-
trine to his young friends that it was their duty, if fortune had placed them in
comfortable circumstances, to give some of their time to the intelligent study of
public affairs and to the service of the community, and he awakened in not a
few minds for the first time the idea that there were better goals in life than the
making of money. It is true that the Round Table Groups which he organized
with such enthusiasm have now faded into oblivion, but many of their members
did not lose the zest for an intelligent study of politics which Glazebrook had im-

328 / Notes

planted in them, and after the last war they proved keen supporters of the Cana-
dian Institute of International Affairs as an agency for continuing the political
education which Glazebrook had begun."

5 That Curtis consulted with Lord Chelmsford on the planned reforms before
Lord Chelmsford went to India in 1916 was revealed in the House of Lords by
Lord Crewe on 12 December 1919, and by Curtis in his book Dyarchy (Oxford,
1920), xxvii.

e Dyarchy (Oxford, 1920), 74.

7 See R. H. Brand, ed., Letters of John Dove (London, 1938), 115-116.
"See R. H. Brand, ed., Letters of John Dove (London, 1938), 326, 340.
9 Some of Milner's Canadian speeches in 1908 and in 1912 will be found in
The Nation and the Empire (Boston, 1913) . Kerr's speech at Toronto on 30 July
1912 was published by Glazebrook in June 1917 as an aid to the war effort. It
bore on the cover the inscription "The Round Table in Canada." Curtis's
speech, so far as I can determine, is unpublished.

10 See R. L. Schuyler, "The Rise of Anti-Imperialism in England," in The
Political Science Quarterly (September 1928 and December 1921); O. D.
Skelton, Life and Times of Sir Alexander Tilloch Gait (Toronto, 1920) , 440; and
C. A. Bodelson, Studies in Mid-Victorian Imperialism (Copenhagen, 1924),
104.

1 'All of these papers will be found in The Proceedings of the Royal Colonial
Institute, VI, 36-85; XII, 346-391; and XI, 90-132.

12 The ideas expressed by Lionel Curtis were really Milner's ideas. This was
publicly admitted by Milner in a speech before a conference of British and
Dominion parliamentarians called together by the Empire Parliamentary
Association, 28 July 1916. At this meeting "Milner expressed complete agree-
ment with the general argument of Mr. Curtis, making lengthy quotations from
his book, and also accepted the main lines of his plan for Imperial Federation.
The resulting discussion showed that not a single Dominion Member present
agreed either with Mr. Curtis or Lord Milner." H. D. Hall, The British Com-
monwealth of Nations (London, 1920), 166. The whole argument of Curtis's
book was expressed briefly by Milner in 1913 in the Introduction to The Nation
and the Empire.

I3 Milner's two letters were in Cecil Headlam, ed., The Milner Papers (2 vols.,
London, 1931-1933), I, 159-160 and 267; On Edward Wood's role, see A. C.
Johnson, Viscount Halifax (New York, 1941), 88-95. The project for devolution,
on a geographic basis for political matters and on a functional basis for
economic matters, was advocated by The Round Table in an article entitled
"Some problems in democracy and reconstruction" in the issue of September
1917. The former type was accepted by Curtis as a method for solving the Irish
problem and as a method which might well have been used in solving the Scot-
tish problem in 1707. He wrote: "The continued existence in Edinburgh and
London of provincial executives and legislatures, entrusted respectively with in-
terests which were stricdy Scottish and strictly English, was not incompatible
with the policy of merging Scots and Englishmen in a common state. The
possibility of distinguishing local from general interests had not as yet been
realized." Again, he wrote: "If ever it should prove expedient to unburden the
Parliament of the United Kingdom by delegating to the inhabitants of England,
Ireland, Scotland, and Wales the management of their own provincial affairs,
and the condition of Ireland should prove no bar to such a measure, the Irish
problem will once for all have been closed"— The Commonwealth of Nations
(London, 1916), 295,518.

14 R. H. Brand, ed., Letters of John Dove (London, 1938), 321.

Notes / 329

15 "The Financial and Economic Future" in The Round Table (December
1918), IX, 114-134. The quotation is from pages 121-123.

l6 The Commonwealth of Nations (London, 1916), 8. This emphasis on duty
to the community is to be found throughout the Milner Group. See, for exam-
ple, Lord Grey's violent retort to a Canadian (who tried to belittle A. J.
Glazebrook because he made no real effort to accumulate wealth) in The Round
Table obituary of Glazebrook (March 1941 issue). The same idea was advocated
by Hichens and Milner to settle the problems of management and labor within
the industrial system. In a speech at Swanwick in 1919, the former said: "The
industrial problem is primarily a moral one. ... If we have rights, we also have
duties. ... In the industrial world our duty clearly is to regard our work as the
Service which we render to the rest of the community, and it is obvious that we
should give, not grudgingly or of necessity but in full measure" (The Round
Table, December 1940, XXXI, 11). Milner 's views are in Questions of the Hour
(London, 1923).

l7 In the August 1911 issue of The Round Table the future Lord Lothian
wrote: "There are at present two codes of international morality — the British or
Anglo-Saxon and the continental or German. Both cannot prevail. If the British
Empire is not strong enough to be a real influence for fair dealing between na-
tions, the reactionary standards of the German bureaucracy will triumph, and
it will then only be a question of time before the British Empire itself is victim-
ized by an international 'hold-up' on the lines of the Agadir incident. Unless the
British peoples are strong enough to make it impossible for backward rivals to
attack them with any prospect of success, they will have to accept the political
standards of the aggressive military powers" (The Round Table, August 1911, 1,
422-423) . What a disaster for the world that Lord Lothian, in March 1936, was
not able to take to heart his own words written twenty-five years earlierl

I8 As a matter of fact, one American Rhodes Scholar was a Negro; the experi-
ment was not a success, not because of any objections by the English, but
because of the objections of other American Rhodes Scholars.

19 L. Curtis, Dyarchy (Oxford, 1920), liii-liv.

20 The Commonwealth of Nations (London, 1916), 16, 24.

2t The Commonwealth of Nations (London, 1916), 181. See also The Prob-
lems of the Commonwealth (London, 1915), 18-19.

22 The quotations from Curtis will be found in The Commonwealth of Na-
tions (London, 1916), 181 and 176; also The Problem of the Commonwealth
(London, 1915), 18-19; the quotation from Dove is in a long letter to Brand,
dated 9 September 1919, in Letters of John Dove, edited by R. H. Brand (Lon-
don, 1938), 96-106; Philip Kerr's statement will be found in L. Curtis, Dyarchy
(Oxford, 1920), 73. See also Kerr's speech at King's College in 1915, published in
The Empire and the Future (London, 1916); he attacks jingo-imperialism,
racial superiority, and national conceit as "Prussian heresy" and adds: "That the
spirit of Prussia has brooded over this land is proved by the shortest examination
of the history of Ireland." He then attacks the Little Englanders and economic
or commercial imperialism, giving shocking examples of their effects on native
lives and cultures. He concludes: "The one thing you cannot do, if you are a
human being, is to do nothing. Civilization cannot stand on one side and see
native tribes destroyed by so-called civilized looters and marauders, or as the
result of the free introduction of firearms, drink, and other instruments of vice.
He decides that Britain, by following a middle ground, has "created not an Em-
pire but a Commonwealth" and defines the latter as a community activated by
the spirit "Love thy neighbor as thyself." (The Empire and the Future, 70-86).
George R. Parkin expresses similar ideas in the same volume on pp. 95-97. Kerr

330 / Notes

had expressed somewhat similar sentiments in a speech before the Canadian
Round Table in Toronto, 30 July 1912. This was published by Glazebrook as a
pamphlet (Toronto, 1917).

25 The quotations from A. L. Smith are from The Empire and the Future
(London, 1916), 29-30.

Chapter 8

■The success of the Group in getting the foreign policy they wanted under a
Liberal government may be explained by the pressure from without through
The Times and the assistance from within through Asquith, Grey, and Haldane,
and through the less obvious but no less important work of persons like Sir Eyre
Crowe and above all Lord Esher.

2 During this period Lord Esher played a vital but still mysterious role in the
government. He was a strong supporter of Milner and his Group and was an in-
fluential adviser of Lloyd George. On 12 November 1917, he had a long walk
with his protege, Hankey, in Paris and "urged the vital importance of sending
Milner as Ambassador, Minister-Plenipotentiary, call him what you will. Henry
Wilson cannot stand alone." Later the same day he spoke to Lloyd George: "I
urged most strongly that he should send Milner here, on the ground that he
would give stability where there is none and that his presence would ensure
Henry Wilson getting 'information.' This I urged specially in view of the future
as of the present. Otherwise we might one day find the Italian position
reproduced in France. He finds Milner almost indispensable, but he will
seriously think of the proposal." Milner was sent to Paris, as Esher wished, four
months later. On 2 February 1918, Esher had another conversation, in which
Lloyd George spoke of putting Milner in Derby's place at the War Office. The
change was made two months later. (Journals and Letters of Reginald, Viscount
Esher [4 vols., London, 1938], 158-159 and 178.)

3 Zimmern was unquestionably one of the better minds in the Milner Group,
and his ideas were frequently closer to Milner's than those of others of the inner
circle. Although Zimmern agreed with the others in 1919 about the severity of
the treaty, his reasons were quite different and do credit to both his integrity
and his intelligence. He objected to the severity of the treaty because it was a
breach of the pre-armistice commitments to the Germans; at the same time he
wanted a continuation of the alliance that had won the war and a strong League
of Nations, because he had no illusions about converting the Germans to
peaceful ways in the near future. The inner circle of the Milner Group were
against a severe treaty or a strong League or an alliance with France because
they believed that Germany could be converted to the British way of thinking
and acting and because they wanted to rebuild Germany as a weapon in a
balance-of-power system against "Russian bolshevism" and "French
militarism." Part II of Europe in Convalescence (New York, 1922) remains to
this day the most brilliant summary available on what went wrong in 1919.

Chapter 9

1 In June 1908, in a speech to the Royal Colonial Institute, Milner said:
"Anything like imperial federation — the effective union of the self-governing

Notes / 331

states — is not, indeed, as some think, a dream, but is certainly at present little
more'than an aspiration" (Milner, The Nation and the Empire [Boston, 1913],
293). In 1891 Sir Charles T upper said: "Most people have come to the conclu-
sion stated by Lord Rosebery at the Mansion House, that a Parliamentary
Federation, if practicable, is so remote that during the coming century it is not
likely to make any very great advance." In 1899, Rosebery said: "Imperial
Federation in any form is an impossible dream." See H. D. Hall, The British
Commonwealth of Nations (London, 1920), 70-71. In October 1905, Joseph
Chamberlain said: "You cannot approach closer union by that means." Philip
Kerr in 1911 spoke of federation as "the ill-considered proposals of the Imperial
Federation League" (The Round Table, August 1911, 1, 374). By this last date,
only Lionel Curtis, of the Milner Group, had much faith in the possibility of
federation. This is why his name alone was affixed, as editor, to the two volumes
published by the Group in 1916.

2 On the secret group of 1903-1905, see H. D. Hall, The British Common-
wealth of Nations (London, 1920). The group was clearly made up of members
of the Cecil Bloc and Milner Group. On its report, see the Proceedings of the
Royal Colonial Institute for 1905, appendix; W. B. Worsfold, The Empire on
the Anvil (London, 1916); and R. Jebb, The Imperial Conference (London,
1911), Vol. II. Lyttleton's dispatch is Cond. 2785 of 1905. Kerr's remark is in
The Round Table (August 1911), I, 410.

3 This opinion of the important role played by Milner in the period
1916-1921 undoubtedly originated from Geoffrey Dawson, but it was shared by
all the members of the Kindergarten. It is stated in different words by Basil
Williams in The Dictionary of National Biography and by John Buchan in his
autobiography, Pilgrim's Way (Boston, 1940).

4 On the reaction to the speeches of Smuts and Halifax, see J. G. Allen,
Editorial Opinion in the Contemporary British Commonwealth and Empire
(Boulder, Colorado, 1946).

5 On this whole section, see "George Louis Beer" in The Round Table
(September 1920), X, 933-935; G. L. Beer, African Questions at the Peace
Conference (New York, 1923), 424-425; H. D. Hall, Mandates, Dependencies,
and Trusteeship (Washington, 1948); U.S. State Department, Foreign Relations
of the United States. Paris Peace Conference 1919, VI, 727-729. That Kerr
wrote Article 22 is revealed in H. V. Temperley, History of the Peace
Conference, VI, 501. That Curtis wrote "Windows of Freedom" and showed it
to Smuts before he wrote his memorandum was revealed by Curtis in a private
communication to Professor Quincy Wright, according to Q. Wright, Mandates
under the League of Nations (Chicago, 1930), 22-23, note 53a.

6 W. K. Hancock, Survey of British Commonwealth Affairs (3 vols., Lon-
don, 1940-1942), I, 125.

7 S. G. Millen, General Smuts (2 vols., London, 1936), II, 321.

Chapter 10

1 Robert Jemmett Stopford (1895- ) was a banker in London from 1921 to
1928. He was private secretary to the chairman of the Simon Commission in
1928-1930, a member of the "Standstill Committee" on German Foreign Debts,
a member of the Runciman Commission to Czechoslovakia in 1938, Liaison Of-
ficer for Refugees with the Czechoslovakian government in 1938-1939, Finan-
cial Counsellor at the British Embassy in Washington in 1943-1945.

332 / Notes
Chapter 11

'See Journals and Letters of Reginald, Viscount Esher (4 vols., London,
1938), II, 56, and III, 8.

According to David Ogg, Herbert Fisher, 1865-1940 (London, 1947), 96,
Fisher, "helped Mr. Montagu in drafting the Montagu-Chelmsford Report."

'This memorandum was published, with Lord Halifax's permission, in A. C.
Johnson, Viscount Halifax (New York, 1941).

Chapter 12

1 See the minutes of the Council of Four, as recorded by Sir Maurice Hankey,
in U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the
United States. The Paris Peace Conference, (Washington, D.C., 1946), VI,
138-160.

2 In Europe in Convalescence (New York, 1922), Alfred Zimmern wrote of
October 1918 as follows: "Europe, 'from the Rhine to the Volga' to quote from a
memorandum written at the time, was in solution. It was not a question now of
autocratic against popular government; it was a question of government against
anarchy. From one moment to the next every responsible student of public af-
fairs, outside the ranks of the professional revolutionaries, however red his
previous affiliations may have been, was turned perforce into a Conservative.
The one urgent question was to get Europe back to work" (80) .

In The Round Table for December 1918 (91-92) a writer (probably Curtis)
stated: "Modern civilization is at grips with two great dangers, the danger of
organized militarism . . . and the more insidious, because more pervasive
danger of anarchy and class conflict. ... As militarism breeds anarchy, so
anarchy in its turn breeds militarism. Both are antagonistic to civilization."

In The Round Table for June 1919, Brand wrote: "It is out of any surplus on
her foreign balance of trade that Germany can alone — apart from any im-
mediately available assets — pay an indemnity. Why should Germany be able to
do the miracle that France and Italy cannot do, and not only balance her trade,
but have great surpluses in addition to pay over to her enemies? ... If, as soon
as peace is declared, Germany is given assistance and credit, she can pay us
something, and should pay all she can. But what she can pay in the next five
years must be, we repeat, limited. If, on the other hand, we take away from her
all her liquid assets, and all her working capital, if furthermore, she is bound in
future to make yearly payments to an amount which will in any reasonable
human expectation exceed her capacity, then no one outside of a lunatic asylum
will lend her money or credit, and she will not recover sufficiently to pay
anything" — War and National Finance (London, 1921), 193.

3 The attitude of the Group toward "French militarism" can be found in
many places. Among others, see Smuts 's speech of October 1923, quoted below.
This attitude was not shared by Professor Zimmern, whose understanding of
Europe in general and of France in particular was much more profound than
that of other members of the Group. In Europe in Convalescence (158-161) he
wrote: "A declaration of British readiness to sign the Guarantee Treaty would
be the best possible answer to French, and it may be added also to Belgian,
fears. ... He little knows either the French peasant or the French townsman
who thinks that aggression, whether open or concealed, against Germany need

Notes / 333

ever be feared from their country. . . . France feels that the same willfully un-
comprehending British policy, the same aggravatingly self-righteous professions
of rectitude, pursue her in the East, from Danzig to Upper Silesia, as on the
Western frontier of her hereditary foe; and in her nervous exasperation she puts
herself ever more in the wrong with her impeccably cool-headed neighbor."

The Group's attitude toward Bolshevism was clearly stated is an article in The
Round Table for March 1919: "Bolshevism is a tyranny — a revolutionary tyr-
anny if you will — which is the complete abnegation of democracy and of all
freedom of thought and action. Based on force and terroristic violence, it is
simply following out the same philosophy which was preached by Nietzsche and
Haeckel, and which for the past twenty-five years has glorified the might of
force as the final justification of all existence. ... In its present form Bolshevism
must either spread or die. It certainly cannot remain stationary. And at the
present moment, it stands as a very real menace to the peace of Europe and to
any successful establishment of a League of Nations. This is the real problem
which the Allied delegates in Paris have now to face. " (The italics are mine.)

4 The German emissary, whose name Smuts does not mention, was Walter de
Haas, Ministerialdirektor in the Foreign Ministry in Berlin.

5 When the Labour government was in power in 1924 and the Dawes settle-
ment of reparations was an accomplished fact, Stresemann was so afraid that
D'Abernon would be replaced as British Ambassador in Berlin that he wrote a
letter to Lord Parmoor (father of Stafford Cripps, Lord President in the Labour
Cabinet, and delegate at the time to the League of Nations), asking that D'Aber-
non be continued in his post as Ambassador. This letter, dated 16 September
1924, was answered by Lord Parmoor on 18 September from Geneva. He said,
in part: "I think that in the first instance Lord D'Abernon was persuaded to go
to Berlin especially in relation to financial and economic difficulties, but
perhaps he may be persuaded to stay on, and finish the good work he has begun.
In any case your letter is sure to be fully considered by our Foreign Minister,
who is also our Prime Minister." See E. Sutton, Gustav Stresemann: His Diaries,
Letters, and Papers (New York, 1935), I, 451-454.

6 This paragraph is largely based on J. H. Morgan, Assize of Arms (London,
1945), especially 199, 42, and 268. It is worthy of note that H. A. L. Fisher con-
sulted with both Lord D'Abernon and General Morgan on his visit to Germany
in 1923 and came away accepting the ideas of the former. Furthermore, when
Gilbert Murray went to Geneva in 1924 as League delegate from South Africa,
Fisher wrote him instructions to this effect. See D. Ogg, Herbert Fisher (Lon-
don, 1947), 115-117.

7 On this organization, see Institute of Politics, Williams College, The In-
stitute of Politics at Williamstown: Its First Decade (Williamstown, Mass.,
1931).

8 Viscount Cecil of Chelwood, The Great Experiment (London, 1941), 166.
The quotations from Lord Esher's Journals and Letters (4 vols., London, 1938)
are in Vol. IV, 227, 250, and 272.

9 Viscount Cecil of Chelwood, The Great Experiment (London, 1941), 250.

10 The whole memorandum and other valuable documents of this period will
be found in USSR, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Documents and Materials
Relating to the Eve of the Second World War (5 vols., 1948-1949), Vol. I,
November 1937-1938. From the Archives of the German Ministry of Foreign Af-
fairs, 13-45. The authenticity of these documents was challenged by an "un-
named spokesman" for the British Foreign Office when they were first issued,
but I am informed by the highest American authority on the captured German

334 / Notes

documents that the ones published by the Russians are completely authentic.

11 Keith Feiling, Life of Neville Chamberlain (London, 1941), 333. The
author is a Fellow of All Souls, close to the Milner Group, and wrote his book on
the basis of the late Prime Minister's papers, which were made available by the
family.

12 See Lionel Curtis, Civitas Dei; The Commonwealth of God (London,
1938), 914-930.

13 Robert J. Stopford, a close associate of the Milner Group whom we have
already mentioned on several occasions, went to Czechoslovakia with
Runciman as a technical adviser. See J. W. Wheeler-Bennett, Munich: Prologue
to Tragedy (New York, 1948), 79, n.l.

14 The reference to Professor Schumann is in J. W. Wheeler-Bennett, Munich
(New York, 1948), 436, n.l. If Mr. Wheeler-Bennett had placed a little
more credence in the "pre-Munich plot," many of the facts which he cannot ex-
plain would be easily fitted into the picture. Among them we might point out
the mystifying (to Mr. Wheeler-Bennett) fact that Lord Runciman's report of 16
September went further than either Hitler or Henlein in demanding sacrifices
from the Czechs (see Munich, p. 112). Or again he would not have had to make
such an about-face as that between page 96 and page 97 of the book. On page
96, The Times's demand of 7 September was similar to the views of Mr.
Chamberlain, as expressed at Lady Astor's on 10 May, and "Geoffrey Dawson
was a personal friend of Lord Halifax. " But on page 97, "The thoughtless ir-
responsibility of The Times did not voice at that moment the views of His
Majesty's Government. If Mr. Wheeler-Bennett had added to his picture a few
additional facts, such as a more accurate version of German rearmaments,
Runciman's letter of 2 September to Hitler, etc. , he would have found it even
more difficult to make his picture of Munich stand up.

15 Count Helmuth James von Moltke, a German of the Resistance (Johan-
nesburg, 1947). See also Allen W. Dulles, Germany's Underground (New York,
1947), 85-90. The additional letter added to the Johannesburg publication was
written by von Moltke to his wife just before his death. Curtis's name is men-
tioned in it.

16 On this whole movement, see Hans Rothfels, The German Opposition to
Hitler (Hinsdale, Illinois, 1948), and F. L. Ford, "The Twentieth of July in the
History of the German Resistance" in The American Historical Review (July
1946), LI, 609-626. On Kordt's message to Lord Halifax, see Rothfels, 58-63.

17 A. C. Johnson, Viscount Halifax (New York, 1941), 531.

18 USSR Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Documents and Materials Relating to
the Eve of the Second World War. II Dirksen Papers (1938-1939) (Moscow,
1948), 126-131.

19 British Blue Book, Cmd. 6106.

20 All documents on these negotiations will be found in a Swedish Foreign
Ministry White Paper, Forspelet till det tyska angreppet pa Danmark och Norge
den 9 April 1940 (Stockholm 1947).

Chapter 13

1 On the Ministry of Information during the war, see Great Britain, Central
Office of Information, First Annual Report, 1947-1948. This is Cmd. 7567.

Notes / 335

2 This extract is printed in the Report of the Council of the Royal Institute of
International Affairs for 1938-1939.

3 The last important public act of the Milner Group was the drawing of the
Italo-Yugoslav boundary in 1946. The British Delegate on the Boundary Com-
mission was C. H. Waldock, now a Chichele Professor and Fellow of All Souls,
assisted by R. J. Stopford.

Index

Abe Bailey Professorship of

Commonwealth Relations, 188
Abraham, Sir Lionel, 203
Academy of International Law, The

Hague, 193
Acton, Lord, 21
Adams, Major Vyvyan, 295-96
Adams, William George Stewart,

91, 93, 143,153, 160,274
African Survey, 81, 167
After the War (Esher), 128, 131
Agenda, 197
Alexander, A.V., 185
Alington, Reverend Cyril A., 24
All Souls, 5, 6, 7, 14, 20-26, 71,

88-89, 91-92, 123-24, 303
"All Souls group," 4
All Souk Parish Magazine, 23
Allen, Sir James, 192, 263,
Altrincham, Lord. See Gregg, Sir

Edward William Mackay.
American Rhodes Scholarships, The

(Aydelotte), 34
American Speeches of Lord Lothian

(Curtis, ed.), 61
Amery, Florence (Greenwood), 67
Amery, Leopold, 21, 48, 57, 88, 89,

150, 158, 176, 180, 230, 243, 302
appeasement, 295
attack on League of Nations,

269, 271-72
conscription, 296

Government of Ireland Act,

1920, 178
in Colonial Office, 157, 160
in War Office, 143, 145
India, 199, 209, 212, 219, 222
Milner's political heir, 62, 67-68
protest against White Paper of

1930, 172-73, 175
Rhodes Trustee, 86, 87
Round Table Group, 137
Times, 75, 101, 102, 113, 114

Ampthill, Lord, 178, 207, 221

Amritsar Massacre, 1919, 225

Angell, Sir Norman, 185

Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, 190

Anson, Anne, 20

Anson, Sir William, 14, 21, 22, 24,
26, 27, 66, 69, 70, 71

anti-Semitism, 170

Arnold, Matthew, 31

Arnold, R.C.M., 162

Arnold Toynbee: A Reminiscence
(Milner), 7

Ashley, Sir William, 101

Asquith, Herbert H., 9, 30, 82, 140,
141, 155, 177, 201, 211
marriage, 19, 20, 201, 245
member of Grillion's , 31

Asquith, Herbert H., Jr., 20

Asquith, Margot (Tennant), 19, 31,
201, 245

Asquith, Raymond, 57

337

338 / Index

Assize of Arms (Morgan), 234, 247
Association of Helpers, 3, 4, 39, 40,

86
Astor, John Jacob, 104, 219, 302
Astor, Michael Langhorne, 103
Astor, Lady Nancy, 60, 91, 102,
103, 175, 178, 243, 263, 284,
295, 302
Astor, Lord Waldorf, 4, 5-6, 48, 57,
91, 103-04, 143, 144, 152, 164,
196, 197, 227, 228, 243
founded Westminster Gazette,

12
League of Nations, 257
Lord Lothian Memorial Fund,

190
Royal Institute of International

Affairs, 184, 185
Times, 102, 103-104, 114
Astor family, 7, 190
Attlee, Clement, 213, 308
Australian Institute of Inter-
national Affairs, 191
Aydelotte, Frank, 34-35, 282, 283

Bailey, Sir Abe, 46, 48
death, 190
financial support, 7, 75, 82,

117, 182, 190, 308
Fort and, 47
Jameson Raid, 46, 110
Bailey, John Milner, 46
Bailey, K.H., 163, 164
Baldwin, Hanson, 287, 288
Baldwin, Stanley, 217, 219, 286
delegate to Imperial Con-
ferences, 157, 158, 159
member of the The Club, 31
Prime Minister, 227-28
protest against White Paper of

1930, 172-73
Rhodes Trustee, 87
Balfour, Arthur J., 7, 16, 17-18, 20,
27, 29, 31, 38, 41, 48, 51, 58,
142, 186, 227, 230
Asquith and, 141
Carson and, 176
Curzon and, 24

delegate to Imperial Confer-
ences, 157, 158
in United States, 143

India, 219
Thesiger and, 28
Balfour, Edith, 19
Balfour, Lieutenant Colonel

F.C.C., 25
Balfour, Gerald W., 16, 17
Balfour, Janet Christian, 25
Balfour, Neville, 17-18
Balfour Declaration of 1917, 159,

169, 172
Balfour family, 15
Balfour of Burleigh, 31
Balliol College, 5, 6, 29, 97-98
Bank of England, 190, 228
Barclay's Bank, 190
Baring, Evelyn (Lord Cromer), 56,

106
Baring Brothers, 190
Barnes, George N., 186, 231
Barnett, Samuel A., 11, 139
Barrington-Ward, F.T., 97
Barrington-Ward, Mary (Smith), 97
Barrington-Ward, R.M., 97, 102,

194
Basu, Bhupendra Nath, 206
Bavin, Sir Thomas R., 152, 163,

191, 263
Beauchamp, Earl of, 7th, 19
Beauchamp, Lord, 178
Beck, Colonel General Ludwig, 288
Bedford, Duke of, 26
Beer, George Louis, 168, 283
Beit, Alfred, 34, 46-47, 48, 49, 50,

75, 86, 87, 108, 135
Beit, Sir Otto, 86, 184
Beit Lectureship in Colonial

History, Oxford, 88-89
Beit Railway Trust, 7, 13, 87, 88
Bell, Reverend Kenneth Norman, 69

69 93 97 164
Bell,'Moberly, 8, 106-07, 111, 114
Bell, Miss Moberly, 106, 107
Bell (G.) and Sons, 114
Belloc, Hilaire, 57
Benn, Sir Ernest, 216
Benn, John A., 154, 216
Benn, Ursula (Hankey), 154
Benn, Wedgewood (Viscount Stans-

gate), 216
Bennett, Thomas J., 208
Bentwich, Norman, 163
Berlin, I., 304,305 307

Index / 339

Bevin, Ernest, 163

Bingley, Baron. See Lane-Fox,

Captain George R.
Birbeck College, London, 100
Blrchenough, Henry, 13, 47, 101,

144
Birkenhead, Lord. See Smith, F.E.
Birks, W.M., 162
Blackwood, Lord Basil, 59, 200
Bliss, General Tasker, 182
Bloemfontein Conference, 1899, 77
Blunt, Wilfrid Scawen, 111, 170
Boer War, 45, 77-78
Booth, General, 39, 41
Booth, Bramwell, 39, 41
Borden, Sir Robert L., 162, 191
Boswell, James, 31
Botha, 152, 231
Boulter, V.M., 187
Bourdillon, F.B., 184-85, 193
Bourinot, George, 127
Braham, Dudley Disraeli, 113, 152
Brand, Sir Hubert, 59
Brand, Sir John, 60
Brand, Lord Robert Henry, 4, 6, 55,
57, 59-61, -575, 76, 80, 143, 228,
232, 235, 240, 241, 244, 303

in Washington, 304

India, 203

Round Table, 117, 122, 123,
124, 131, 132

Royal Institute of International
Affairs, 186
Times, 102
Brand, Susan (Cavendish), 59
Brand, Thomas Henry, 60, 228
Brassey, Sir Thomas, 8, 43, 48, 127
Brett, Reginald Baliol (Lord Esher),
3, 38, 40, 41-43, 48, 94, 109, 110,
153, 263

Hankey and, 154

League of Nations Union, 258

Milner and, 51, 86

Rosebery and, 45

Round Table Group, 131

Times, 102
Bridges, Edward E., 155
Bridges, Robert, 155

Brierley, James L., 310
British American Tobacco Com-
pany, 190

British Commonwealth, The

166, 209
British Coordinating Committee for

International Studies, 194
British Dominions, The (Ashley),

101
British South Africa Company, 9,

11-12, 13, 38, 48, 109
Brodrick, Edith, 20
Brodrick, Lady Hilda (Charteris),

20
Brodrick, St. John (Lord Midleton),

9, 18, 24, 30, 56, 178, 199, 245
India, 209, 219, 221
marriage, 20
Brougham, Lord, 31
Brown, A.J., 196
Bryce, Lord, 31, 133
Buchan, John (Lord Tweedsmuir),

25, 56-58, 101, 145, 274
federation, 151
India, 219, 222
member of The Club, 31
on Milner, 82, 142
Buchan, Susan (Grosvenor), 58
Buchanan, Sir Thomas R., 95,202
Buckle, George E., 8, 9, 62, 102, 114
Bulletin oj International Affairs, 196
Bulletin of International News, 187
Burchell, Charles J., 162
Burke, Edmund, 31
Burnett-Stuart, Sir John, 163
Burnham, Viscount, 213, 214
Burnham, James, 85
Butler, Sir Harold Beresford Butler,

21, 93, 94, 144, 185, 186, 258
in Washington, 304
Butler, R.A., 175
Butler, Rohan D'Olier, 97

Cadogan, Earl, 213
Cadogan, Sir Alexander, 213, 279
Cadogan, Edward Cecil, 213
Campbell-Bannerman, Sir Henry,

111
Canadian Constitutional Develop-
ment (Egerton), 88
Canning, George, 31
Cape Times, The, 12, 44, 167
Cape Town University, 100
Carnarvon, Lord, 33, 34

340 / Index

Carnegie Corporation, 55, 162, 163,
183

Carnegie Corporation of New York,
188

Carnegie Endowment for Interna-
tional Peace, 259

European Center, 193

Carnegie United Kingdom Trustees,
190

Carnock, Lord, 31, 221

Carr, E.H., 185, 188, 257, 258

Carr-Saunders, A.M., 195

Carson, Sir Edward, 141, 142, 176-
77

Casement, Sir Roger, 179

Casement, Tom, 179

Cassel, Sir Ernest, 86

Cave, Sir George, 142

Cavendish, Lady Elizabeth, 16

Cavendish, Lord George, 59

Cavendish, Mary, 19

Cavendish, Susan, 59

Cavendish family, 15, 18, 30

Cazalet, V.A., 163

Cecil, Algernon, 27, 145

Cecil, Lady Alicia, 144

Cecil, Lady Beatrice, 16, 160

Cecil, Lord David, 16, 98

Cecil, Lady Edward. See Milner,
Lady

Cecil, Lord Edward, 17

Cecil, Lady Evelyn, 27

Cecil, Sir Evelvn, 20, 101, 243

Cecil, Helen Mary, 17, 25

Cecil, Lord Hugh (Baron Quicks-
wood), 17, 20, 31, 98, 222, 243

Cecil, James (Viscount Cranborne),
16, 18, 219

Cecil, Lady Mary, 16

Cecil, Lord Robert (Viscount Cecil
of Chelwood), 16, 20, 50, 90, 141,
142, 143, 158, 162, 164, 194, 221,
227, 231, 243, 260, 279
Cecil Draft, 26
Geneva Protocol, 263-64
Government of Ireland Act,

1920, 178
League of Nations, 249, 250-51,

257, 268
member of Grillion's, 31
Royal Institute of International
Affairs, 182, 183, 185, 186

Cecil, Lord William, 16

Cecil Bloc, 6, 7, 8, 13, 15-32, 127,
140-45 passim, 182, 230, 236
All Souls and 20-29, 91
Colonial or Imperial Confer-
ences, 152, 157
family relationships, 18-20
ideology, 29
India, 198, 201, 208, 209, 211,

222
Ireland, 176, 177
Royal Institute of International
Affairs, 184
Times, 102
Cecil Draft, 26

Central Mining and Investment Cor-
poration, 190
Chamberlain, Austen, 172-73, 227
231, 265, 266, 268, 269, 272, 278
delegate to Imperial Confer-
ences, 157, 158
Geneva Protocol, 263
Government of Ireland Act,

1920, 178
India, 141, 142, 143, 199, 200

219
member of The Club, 31
Royal Institute of International
Affairs, 185, 195
Chamberlain, Joseph, 18, 51, 54,

88, 94, 108, 109-10, 151
Chamberlain, Neville, 159, 275,

276, 277, 284-302 passim
Charteris, A.H., 162, 163
Charteris, Francis, See Wemyss,

Earl of, 10th.
Charteris, Guy, 20
Charteris, Lady Hilda, 20
Chatham House, 189. See also Royal

Institute of International Affairs
"Chatham House crowd," 4
Chelmsford, Lord, 21, 28-29, 113,
120, 185
India, 198, 202, 203-204, 206
210
Chichele, Henry, 20
Chichele Professorship of Interna-
tional Law and Diplomacy, 310
Childers, Erskine, 179
Chirol, Sir Valentine, 101, 112-13,
114, 115, 116
India, 199, 205, 206, 207
Royal Institute of International
Affairs, 183, 185-86

Index / 341

Christian Science, 70

Churchill, Winston, 157, 158, 167

286, 288, 293, 298, 302
India, 219, 220, 222-23
Circle of Initiates, 40
Civitas Dei (Curtis), 282, 309
Clark, G.N., 21, 185, 197, 309
Claxton, Brooke, 162
Clemenceau, George, 232
"Cliveden set, 4, 232
Closer Union Societies, 66, 75, 82,

182
Central Committee, 76
Club, The, 30-31
Coatman, John, 164
"Coefficients," 137-38
Cole, G.D.H., 21
Colonial Conferences, 152
Committee of Imperial Defence,

152-53, 263
Commonwealth of God, The (Cur-
tis, ed.), 142, 282, 284
Commonwealth of Nations (Curtis,

ed.), 118, 126, 133, 135, 168, 204,

282
Congdon, F.H., 36, 85
conscription, 296
Conservative Party, 30, 217, 224,

228
Consultation and Cooperation in the

British Commonwealth, 161-62
Cook, Sir Edward T., 12, 13, 44,

110, 259
Corbett, Percy E., 152, 162, 163,

191, 306
Cote, Louis, 162
Coudenhove-Kalergi, Count, 284
Council on Foreign Relations, 161,

168, 190-91, 192, 260
Coupland, Reginald, 71, 88, 89, 90-

91, 123, 152, 161

adviser to Cripps Mission, 224
Beit Professorship, 87
India, 199, 200, 209-10
Palestine, 170, 173, 174
Round Table, 124
Courtney, Dame Janet, 190
Courtney, Kathleen, 164
Courtney, Leonard H., 67
Craik, Sir Henry, 199, 208
Cranbrook, Lord, 30, 221
Cranborne, Viscount. See Cecil,

James; Salisbury, Lord.

Crawford, Earl of, 142
Creighton, Bishop, 31
Crewe, Lord, 45, 204
Cripps Mission, 224
Cromer, Lord, 56, 106
Crowe, Sir Eyre, 158, 163
Crowther, Geoffrey, 185, 187
Cruttwll, C.R.M.F., 195
Curtis, Lionel, 4, 6, 27-28, 48, 63-
-66, 71, 80, 85, 129, 163, 177,
263, 289

commonwealth and federation,
57-58, 126-27, 135-36, 148,
150, 165, 282, 283
India, 112-13, 117-18, 202-10

passim, 215-222
League of Nations, 232, 235-36

237, 251-52, 259
Round Table, 119, 120, 121,

123, 125, 179
Royal Institute of International

Affairs, 182-97 passim, 309
secretary to Irish Conference,

1921, 179
Union of South Africa, 75, 76
writings, 56, 61, 73, 89, 90,
133, 135, 149, 155, 164, 168,
282, 284
Curtis, Monica, 187
Curzon, Lord George Nathanial, 18,
21, 24, 27, 141, 143, 227-28, 245,
246

delegate to Imperial Confer-
ence, 157
Government of Ireland Act,

1920, 178
India, 200-01, 206, 209
member of Grillion's, 31
Milner compared to, 56
Curzon: The Last Phase (Nicohon),

246
Czechoslovakia, 284-86, 287, 288-89

D'Aberon, Lord (Edgar Vincent),

244-48
Dafoe, John W., 162
Daily Chronicle, 12, 61
Daily News, 12
Daladier, Edouard, 277
Dalmeny, Lord, 19
Dalton, Dr. Hugh, 195, 297
Davies, Lord, 150, 296

342 / Index

Davis, DwightF., 305

Davis, H. W.C., 21, 93-94, 144, 145,

199
Davy, Humphry, 31
Dawes Plan, 1924, 60, 241, 243,

244, 245, 248
Dawson, Geoffrey, 48, 61-62, 73,

75, 222, 274, 297, 302
member of Grillion's, 31
Rhodes Trustee, 86, 87
Round Table, 123
Royal Institute of International

Affairs, 183
Times, 101, 102, 114, 211, 213,
216
Derby, Earl of, 142
de Smidt, Adeline, 154
de Valera, Eamon, 179, 180
Devonshire, Duke of, 7th, 30
Devonshire, Duke of, 8th, 157
Devonshire, Duke of, 10th. See

Hartington, Marquess of.
Diary of An Ambassador (D'Aber-

non), 246
Dicey, A. V., 21, 90, 133, 149, 155,

233
Dictionary of National Biography,

99
Dirksen, Ambassador Herbert von,

275, 277-78
Documents on International Affairs,

187
Dove, John, 55, 66-67, 145, 147,

171, 189, 215, 244, 263, 266
Round Table, 119, 123, 129,
135, 136
Drummond, Sir Eric, 258
Dufferin, Lord, 59, 70, 160, 173,

200, 219, 219, 221
Duke, Sir Frederick, 143
Duke, Henry E., 142
Dulles, Allen W., 195
Duncan, Patrick, 53-54, 76, 79,

263
Dundas, Lawrence John Lumley.

See Zetland, Lord.
Durham, Bishop of. See Henson,

Herbert Hensley.
Dyarchy (Curtis), 204, 206, 207

Ebert, Friedrich, 234

Eckardstein, Baron von, 115, 116

Economist, The, 138

Eden, Anthony, 196, 197, 272, 273-

74, 281
Egerton, H.E., 9, 87-88
Eggleston, F.W., 152, 163, 191,

192, 195, 263, 306
Egyptian Declaration, 1922, 180
Eighteenth Decisive Battle of the

World, The (D'Abernon), 246
Eisenmann, Louis, 195
Elton, Godfrey, 152, 221, 229
Empire and the Century, The

(Goldman, ed.), 101
Empire and the Future, The, 101
Empire and the World, The

(Willert), 260
England Under Edward VII

(Farrar), 115
Ensor, R.C.K., 194
Erlangers, Ltd., 90
Ernie, Lord. See Prothero, Rowland

Edmund.
Esher, Lord. See Brett, Reginald

Baliol.
Eton, 6
Europe in Convalescence

(Zimmern), 146, 232, 237
Evans, Sir Arthur, 185
Evans, W. Sanford, 162

Faber, Geoffrey, 21

Faber and Faber, 114

Faith of a Modern Churchman, The

(Glazebrook), 9
Falconer, Sir Robert, 162
Farrer, J.A., 115
Fay, Sidney B., 115
Feetham, Richard, 53, 54, 75, 152,

180, 199, 208
Feiling, Keith, 21, 104, 275, 277
Fiddes, Sir George Vandeleur, 55-

56, 144-45, 160, 180
Finlay, Sir Robert, 141-42
Firth, Charles H., 9, 90
Fisher, Allan G.B., 164, 186, 187,

188
Fisher, H.A.L., 24, 48, 68-71, 88,

89, 96, 97, 101, 142, 227, 231,

241, 242-43, 305

delegate to League of Nations,
257

Index / 343

Government of Ireland Act,

1920, 178
Governor of BBC, 307
Home University Library, 138-

39
India, 199, 201, 203, 208, 209
Rhodes Trustee, 86, 87
Round Table, 123
Royal Institute of International
Affairs, 185, 186
Fisher, Lettice (Ilbert), 70, 305
Fitzmaurice, Lord Edmond, 245-46
Flavelle, Sir Joseph, 55, 152, 162

191
Foot, Isaac, 200
Ford Motor Company, 190
Foreign Affairs, 191
Foreign Logistical Organizations

and Methods (Robinson), 286-87
Foreign Research and Press Service,

196, 197
Fort, George Seymour, 47
Foster, John Galway, 304, 305
Fox, Charles, 31
Framework of Union, The (Long,

ed.), 76
Frankel, S.H., 164
Fraser, A.M., 163
Freeman, E.A., 133
Freeman-Thomas, Freeman. See

Willingdon, Lord.
Frost, Robert, 164

G. Bell and Sons, 114

Gandhi, Mahatma, 206, 209, 218,

221, 224, 225
Garrett, Edmund, 12, 35, 45, 84
Garrick, David, 31
Garvin, L.J. , 38
Gascoyne-Cecil, Robert Arthur

Talbot. See Salisbury, Lord.
Gathorne-Hardy, Lady Evelyn, 25
Gathorne-Hardy, G.M., 161, 183,

184, 185, 186, 188, 195
Gathorne-Hardy family, 15
Gell, Edith (Brodrick), 20
Gell, Philip Lyttelton, 7, 9, 11, 18,

20, 49, 308
Geneva Protocol, 262-64
Geneva School of International

Studies, 193, 259

George, Lloyd, 78, 141, 179, 213,

216, 217, 231, 247

delegate to Imperial Confer-
ence, 157
division of Ireland, 177
"khaki election," 237
Milner Group and, 5, 53, 55,
142-43, 145-46, 294
George V Professorship of History,

Cape Town University, 100
Germany, 5, 140, 146-47, 231-48
Gibb, H.A.R., 187
Gibbon, Edward, 31
Gladstone, William Ewart, 18, 30,

31
Gladstone, Mrs. William E., 18
Glazebrook, Arthur James, 9, 48,

87, 119, 152, 191, 263
Glazebrook, George Parkin de

Twenebrokes, 9, 119,-20, 162
Glazebrook, Michael, 7, 9, 13
Glenconner, Baron, 19
Goerdeler, Carl Friedrich, 288
Goldman, Charles S., 101
Goldsmith, Oliver, 31
Gordon, Charles B., 55
Goring, Herman, 285
Goschen, Viscount, 2nd, 25, 144
Goschen, Lord George J., 11, 30,

57, 70, 127, 221, 228

Government of Ireland Act,

1920, 178
Milner and, 13, 14, 20, 24, 69
Goschen, Janet Christian, 25
Government of India Act, 1919,

112-13, 126, 198, 202-09, 212
Government of India Act, 1935, 62,

222-23
Government of Ireland Act,

1920, 178
Government of South Africa, The,

76
Graduate Institute of International

Studies, Geneva, 193, 259
Grandi, Count, 273
Grant, W.L., 100
Great Dominion, The (Parkin), 8
Great Opportunity, The (Wood),

128
Greek Commonwealth, The

(Zimmern), 149
Green, M.S., 74

344 / Index

Greene, Jerome D., 188-89, 192
Greenwood, Florence, 67
Greenwood, Lord Hamar, 67, 178,

227
Grey, Earl, 5th, 12
Grey, Albert, 11-12, 34, 38, 40, 41,
48, 49, 54-55, 56, 72, 86, 127, 131
Grey, Sir Edward, 30, 31, 58, 137
Grey of Fallodon, Viscount, 19
Griffith, Arthur, 179
Grigg, Sir Edward William
Mackay,, 48, 54, 68, 75, 86, 143
150, 157, 222, 307
biographical sketch of Lord

Lothian, 61
Commonwealth reform, 165,

166, 167
conscription, 296
India, 199, 209
Royal Institute of International

Affairs, 186
support for Chamberlain, 302
Times, 102, 113
Grillion's, 30, 31
Groner, General, 234
Grosvenor, Countess, 10, 20
Grosvenor, Dora (Wemyss), 19
Grosvenor, Dorothy (Lady Brassey),

19
Grosvenor, Lord Henry, 19
Grosvenor, Lettice, 19
Grosvenor, Susan, 58
Grosvenor Family, 15
Grote, George, 31
Growth oj British Polity (Seeley), 27
Guest, Frances, 28-29
Guest, Rosamond, 28, 29
Gwyer, Sir Maurice Linford, 21,
94, 143, 159, 191

Hadow, Grace, 163
Hailey, Lord Malcolm, 81-82, 164
India, 113, 199, 200, 206, 207,

210, 217, 220
Royal Institute of International
Affairs, 185, 186
Hailsham, Lord, 219
Haldane, Lord R.B., 30, 58, 137,

152
Hale, OronJ., 115
Halifax, Lord, 5, 21, 26, 57, 61,
72, 74, 159, 186, 222, 227, 230,

243, 257, 269-77 passim ,295-304

passim

Commonwealth reform, 165,

166
federation, 128
in Colonial Office, 160
Government of Ireland Act,

1920, 178
member of The Club, 31
Halifax, Viscount, 2nd, 26
Hallam, Henry, 31
Hambros' Bank, 190
Hamilton, Sir Robert, 200
Hampden, Viscount, 3rd, 59, 178,

221, 228
Hanbury- Williams, John, 56
Hancock, William Keith, 21, 94,

158, 163, 178, 188
Harcourt, Sir William, 131
Harcourt family, 38, 131
Hardinge, Captain Alexander, 17,

25, 228
Hardinge, Sir Arthur Henry (Baron

Hardinge of Penshurst), 17, 21, 24
Hardinge, Charles, 24-25, 221
Hardinge, George Edward, 25
Hardinge, Helen Mary (Cecil), 17,

25
Hardinge, Janet Christian (Goschen)

25
Harlech, Lord. See Ormsby-Gore,

W.G.A.
Harlow, Vincent T., 124-125, 161,

164
Harris, Charles R.S., 103, 308
Harris, Rutherford, 44, 108
Harris, Wilson, 185, 186, 258, 260,

263
Harrow, 6

Hart, Captain Liddell, 195
Hartington, Lady, 201
Hartington, Marquess of, 16, 18,

159
Hartshorn, Vernon, 213
Harvey, Heather, 164
Harwood, D., 195
Hassell, Ulrich von, 288
Hawksley, B.F., 34, 43, 48, 86
Hankey, Adeline (De Smidt), 154
Hankey, Sir Maurice Pascal Alers,

31, 123, 143, 153-60 passim,

176, 185, 230, 274
Hankey, Robert, 154

Index / 345

Hankey, Ursula, 154
Headlam, Agnes, 26
Headlam, Bishop Arthur Cayley, 25,

98
Headlam-Morley, Sir James, 25,

115, 143, 45, 185, 188, 310
Hely-Hutchinson, William, 101
Henderon, H.D., 144, 159, 185
Henderson, Sir Neville, 273, 276,

299
Henlein, Konrad, 284, 286
Henson, Herbert Hensley (Bishop of

Durham), 22, 25, 31
Herbert, Sir bbert George Wynd-

ham, 21, 106, 107
Hesse, Press Adviser, 298
Hewart, Lord, 31
Hewins, W.A.S., 138
Hichens, Hermione (Lyttelton), 55
Hichens, William Lionel, 55, 65, 75,
80, 123, 132, 138, 183, 186, 199,
248, 303
Hinchingbrooke, Viscount, 164
History of the Peace Conference

(Temperley), 168, 183
History of the Times, The, 107, 108

111, 114, 115-16
Hitler, Adolf, 265-300 passim
Hoare, Sir Samuel, 19, 175, 227,
230, 243, 260, 265, 270-75 passim
295, 297, 300, 302

delegate to Imperial Confer-
ences, 158, 159
Government of Ireland Act,

1920, 178
India, 200, 219, 220, 222, 223
Hoare-Laval Plan, 1935, 272, 273
Hobhouse, Christopher, 22-23
Hodson, H.V., 92, 105, 124, 152,
260, 308

delegate to conferences on
British Commonwealth rela-
tions, 161, 162, 163
Reforms Commissioner for

India, 224
Royal Institute of International

Affairs, 185, 195
Survey of International Affairs,
187
Hofmeyr, G.R., 163
Hogarth, D.G., 185, 186
Holdworth, Sir William, 21
Holland, Sir Reginald Southern,

27, 46, 47, 48, 86, 87, 144, 308
Holland, Thomas, 208
Home University Library, 138-39
Horsfall, P., 123
Howard, Donald Palmer, 213
Hull, Cordell, 277
Hurst, Sir Cecil, 158, 183, 250,

253, 257, 261-62, 265
Huxley, T.H., 31

Ilbert, Sir Courtenay, 70
Ilbert, Lettice, 70

Immortal Heritage; The Work of the
Imperial War Graves Commis-
sion, The (Ware), 63
Imperial Chemical Industries, 190
Imperial Conferences, 152-53, 155-

59, 292
hnperial Federation (Parkin), 8
Imperial Federation League, 43, 127
Imperial Munitions Board of

Canada, 55
Imperial War Conference, 156
In Afrikanderland and the Land of

Ophir (Garrett), 12
India, 5, 198-226
India, A Re-Statement (Coupland)

210
India Council Act, 1892, 200-01
India Council Act, 1909, 201, 202
India: The White Paper (Thomp-
son), 219
Indian Institute of International

Affairs, 191
Institute of Pacific Relations, 161,

163, 192, 193-94, 260
Intellectual Cooperation League,

League of Nations, 193
International Affairs, 161, 186-87

196
International Committee on Intel-
lectual Cooperation, 193-94
International Postal Union, 249

252
International Studies Conferences,

193-95
Ireland, 5, 18, 76-80
Irish Conference, 1921, 179
Irish Institute of International

Affairs, 180
Irwin, Baron. See Halifax, Lord.
Islington, Baron, 199

346 / Index

Islington, Lord, 1-9, 221
Iwan-Muller Ernest, 11

J. P. Morgan and Company, 183,

191, 241, 259, 260
Jameson, Leander Starr, 12, 34,

46, 47, 48, 75, 86, 108
Jameson Raid, 1895, 5, 44, 46, 47,

77, 107-11
Jay, Douglas P.T., 103, 308
Jebb, Richard, 31
Jesuits, 34, 35, 44-45
Johannesburg Star, 75
Johnson, Alan Campbell, 72-73
Johnson, Samuel, 31
Johnston, Sir Harry H., 39, 40, 48,

51
Jones, A. Creech, 164, 211, 218
Jones, Clement, 183, 185, 194
Joseph Chamberlain: Conspirator or

Statesman (Stead), 111
Jowett, Benjamin, 10, 132
Junta of Three, 1

Keith, A.B., 195

Kelly, Sir Howard, 163

Kelvin, Lord, 31

Kennedy, W.P.M., 162

Ker, W.P., 9

Kerr, Philip. See Lothian, Lord.

Kindersley, Lord, 241, 246

King, Mackenzie, 167

King-Hall, Stephen, 183-84, 185,

189, 191, 260
Kipling, Lord Rudyard, 31, 86
Kordt, Erich, 288
Kordt, Theodore, 285, 288-89, 299
Kreisau Circle, 289
Kruger, Paulus, 77
Kuczyniski, R., 195

Labilliere, F.P., 127

Labouchere, 111

Labour Party, 140, 141, 159, 170,

172, 228, 229, 216
Lamont, Thomas W., 183, 235
Lane-Fox, Captain George R.,

(Baron Bingley), 178, 213-14,

227, 244

Lane-Fox, Mary (Wood), 214, 244
Lang, Archbishop, 101, 173, 200,

219, 221
Lang, Cosmo Gordon, 25
Langer, William L., 115
Langhorne, Chiswell Dabney, 60,

103
Lansdowne, Lord, 18, 31, 141, 207,

216
Latham, Richard T.E., 158, 162,
Lathan, Sir John Grieg, 158-59,

258

168
Latimer, Alfred Hugh, 196
Latimer, Hugh, 196
Laurier, Sir Wilfrid, 254
Lauterpacht, H., 195
Laval, Pierre, 272
Law, Bonar, 141
Law of the Constitution, The

(Dicey), 133
Lawley, Sir Arthur, 61, 62
Lawrence, T.E., 21, 170, 171
Layton, Sir Walter T., 164, 185,

186
Lazard Brothers and Company, 7,

190
League of Nations, 5, 168-69, 230,

232, 235, 236, 248-63, 272
Cecil Draft, 26

Intellectual Cooperation Or-
ganization, 193
League of Nations; A Practical Sug-
gestion, The, 168-69, 251
League of Nations Union, 258-259,

274
Leoonfield, Baron, 19
Leconfield, Lord, 17, 178, 221
Leconfield, Constance (Primrose),

19
Lecky, W.E., 31

Lectures on the Industrial Revolu-
tion (Toynbee), 10
Lee of Fareham, Lord, 199
Leonard, Colonel R.W., 189
Letter to the People of India, A

(Curtis), 73, 117, 126, 137, 206
Letters of John Dove, The (Brand,

ed.), 263
Lever Brothers, 190
Liberal Party, 30, 127, 140, 141,

216, 217

Index / 347

Liddell, Frederick, 143

Life of Curzon (Ronaldshay) , 206

Linlithgow, Lord, 178, 198, 221,

224
Listen, Hans (Thompson), 289
Little England doctrines, 127
Liverpool, Lord, 31
Lloyd, Lord, 219, 221
Lloyd's, 190
Locarno Pacts, 244, 245, 264, 265

268
London School of Economics and

Political Science, 194, 197
Londonderry, Lord, 274
Long, Basil Kellett, 73, 75, 76, 102,

105, 191, 260
Long, Walter, 18, 141, 142, 152,

184, 227
Lord Lothian Memorial Fund, 190
Lord Milner in South Africa (Iwan-

Muller), 11
Lothian, Lord, 4, 6, 27, 48, 49, 57,
59, 60-61, 68, 75, 101, 121, 143,
175, 215, 219, 221, 222, 230-37
passim, 247, 259, 260, 268-69,
271, 274, 279-84 passim, 289,
293, 295, 303

Christian Science, 70
conscription, 296
delegate to conference on
British Commonwealth rela-
tions, 163
Geneva Protocol, 263
in Washington, 304
India, 203, 205
League of Nations, 169
Memorial Fund, 190
Rhodes Trustee, 86, 87
Round Table, 123, 125, 126,

136
Round Table Groups, 117, 119,

120, 131
Royal Institute of International
Affairs, 181, 183, 185, 186
Lothian, Marquess of, 200
Lucas, Baron, 57
Lucas, Sir Charles, 9, 88, 152
Lucknow Compact, 1916, 205, 206
Lugard, Lady, 101, 104, 105, 106-

09, 111
Lugard, Sir Frederick, 101, 105-06,
173, 186, 221, 228

Lumley, Laurence Roger (Earl of

Scarbrough), 20
Lyttelton, Alfred, 17, 18, 19, 38, 41,

52, 54, 101, 152, 245
Lyttelton, Mrs. Alfred, 144, 185,

189, 257, 258
Lyttelton, Arthur, 18
Lyttelton, Charles, 18-19
Lyttelton, Edith (Balfour), 19, 32
Lyttelton, Edward, 24
Lyttelton, Frances, 19, 28, 29
Lyttelton, George, 19
Lyttelton, George W., 18, 30
Lyttelton, Hermione, 55
Lyttelton, Hester, 24
Lyttelton, Laura (Tennant), 19,

201, 245
Lyttelton, Mary (Cavendish), 16
Lyttelton, Maude, 54
Lyttelton, Sir Neville, 18, 31, 55
Lyttelton, Captain Oliver, 19, 55,

186, 189, 307, 308
Lyttelton, Spencer, 18
Lyttelton family, 30
Lytton, Lord, 178, 185, 195, 200,

257

Macadam, Ivison S., 162, 163, 193
Macartney, C.A., 21, 186, 195,

258, 303
Macauley, T.B., 31
MacDonald, Malcolm, 159, 160,

175, 185, 229, 230, 302
MacDonald, Ramsay, 154, 173, 228,

229
MacDonnell, J.J., 162
Maffey, John, 160
Maguire, J. Rochfort, 46, 48
Mahan, Admiral, 236
Maitland, Frederic W., 69
Making of the Union of South

Africa, The (Green), 74
Makins, Roger Mellor, 196, 258,

305-06
Malan, F.S., 162
Malcolm, Dougal, 47, 48, 54-55,75,

184, 308
Malcolm, Ian, 143
Malcolm, Major-General Sir Neill,

55, 184, 185, 186, 195
Manchester School, 131

348

Index

Mander, Geoffrey, 284
Manikaland, 40
Manning, Cardinal, 41
Manning, C.A.W., 195
Mansergh, Nicholas, 188
Mantoux, Paul, 186
Marconi, 8
Marris, Adam D., 80-81, 187, 228,

304, 305
Marris, Sir William, 79, 80, 81, 96,
113, 202-02, 117-18, 205, 207, 210
Massey, Lionel Vincent, 163
Massey, Vincent, 9, 100, 119, 152,

158, 159, 162, 191, 258, 263
Massey family, 87
Masterton-Smith, James, 160
Maxse, Admiral Frederick, 17
Maxse, General Sir Ivor, 17, 19, 54
Maxse, Violet, 17
McMahon, Sir Henry, 17
McNair, A.D., 195
Memoir ofJ.R. Seeley (Prothero), 27
Meston, Lord James S., 79-80, 113,
178, 308

India, 203, 205, 206, 207, 210,

221
Royal Institute of International
Affairs, 183, 184, 185, 194,
195
Michell, Sir Lewis Loyd, 34, 46, 47-

48,86
Midland Bank, 190
Midleton, Lord. See Brodrick, St.

John.
Mill, John Stuart, 127
Millen, Mrs., 231, 245
Millin, S.G., 179
Miller, David Hunter, 253
Milner, Lady, 11, 17, 19
Milner, Sir Alfred, 3, 4, 6, 84-86,
127-31 passim, 142, 144, 148-57
passim, 166, 173
Balfour Declaration, 169
Cecil Bloc, 20, 25-31 passim
director of Rio Tinto, 308
Goschen and, 13-14
Government of Ireland Act,

1920, 178
marriage, 17
India, 206
Milner's Kindergarten, 51-82

passim
obituary, 138, 156-57

Rhodes' secret society, 33-50

passim
Rhodes Trust, 86-87
Round Table, 1212-23, 125,
131

Smuts compared to, 77
Milner Group, 4-14, 35, 84-99
in United States, 303-06
See also specific headings, e.g.:
Cecil Bloc: Round Table
Groups
Milner's Kindergarten, 4, 51-83
Minter, Sir Frederick, 163
Minto, Lord, 198, 201-02
Mitrany, Dr. David, 195
Molesworth, Sir Robert (Lord Kind-

ersley), 241, 246
Moltke, Countess Dorothy von, 289
Moltke, Helmuth von, 289
Monson, Sir Edmund, 21, 178
Montagu, Edwin S., 143, 202, 206,

207, 208
Montagu-Chelmsford report, 83,

202, 207, 208
Montague Burton Chair of Interna-
tional Relations, Oxford, 194,
310
Monypenny, William Flavelle, 62,

75, 77, 101, 102, 112
Morgan, Brigadier General John H.,

234, 247
Morgan, J. P., 183, 191, 192
Morgan (J. P.) and Company, 183,

191, 241, 259, 260
Morin, ReneL., 162
Morley, Lord John, 11, 13, 30, 31,

94-95, 198-99, 201
Morning Post, 75, 76
Morrell, W.P., 93, 164
Mowbray, Robert, 9
Mowbray, Sir Thomas, 13
Muller, Friedrich Max, 21
Munich: Prologue to Tragedy
(Wheeler-Bennett), 276, 288
Murray, Gilbert, 31, 32, 185, 188,
193, 194, 195, 257, 258

Natal, 76

National Service Act of April 26,

1939, 296
Nelson, Thomas A., 57, 58
Nettleship, 132

Index / 349

New College, Oxford, 5, 6, 98

New Zealand Institute of Inter-
national Affairs, 191-92

Nicolson, Harold, 24, 146, 185, 227,
232, 246

Nineteenth Century and After, The,
138

Nitobe, I., 192

Noel-Baker, Philip J., 161, 162, 175,
176, 183

Noel-Buxton, Lord, 299

Norman, Montague, 235

Northcliffe, Lord, 42, 102, 114

Noske, Gustav, 234

Nuffield College, 7, 100

Nyasaland, 40

O'Dwyer, Sir Michael, 220
Omas, Sir Charles, 21
Onslow, Lord, 178, 227
Ormsby-Gore, Lady Beatrice, 16,

160
Ormsby-Gore, W.G.A. (Lord Har-
lech), 16, 153, 159, 160, 169, 173,
227, 230, 243

delegate to League of Nations,

257
India, 199, 208, 219, 222
Royal Institute of International
Affairs, 185, 186
Oxford, 7, 30, 86-100

Montague Burton Chair of In-
ternational Relations, 194,
310
See also specific colleges, e.g.:
All Souls
Oxford Summer School for Working
Class Students, 1913, 139

Packer, G., 195

Palestine, 5, 169-76

Pall Mall Gazette, 11, 12, 13, 37-38,

41, 94, 259
Palmer, Lady Mabel Laura, 16
Palmer family, 15
Pares, Sir Bernard, 308, 309
Pares, Richard, 308
Parkin, George R., 7-9, 37, 48, 49,

85, 87, 89, 101, 119, 128

propaganda activities, 8, 36, 43
secretary of Rhodes Trust, 86

Parnell, Charles Stewart, 37

Paton, H.J., 197

Peace Conference, 1919, 171

"Peace Ballot," 274

Peace Conference, 1919, 171

Peacemaking, 1919 (Nicolson), 146,

232
Peacock, Sir Edward R., 86-87, 187,

228
Peel, Earl, 200
Peel Commission, 91, 168, 170, 173-

74
Pember, Francis W., 26, 31, 91
Percy, Lord Eustace, 31, 168, 183,

186, 200, 219, 222, 260
Phillimore, Lord Walter, 21, 26, 99,

145, 178, 221, 250
Phillimore Committee, 250
Phillips, Lionel, 101
Phipps, Sir Eric, 273
Pickering, N.E., 34
Pilgrim's Way (Buchan), 56
Poincaresystem, 241-42, 244
Policy On Which All Liberals May

Unite, A (Brassey), 127
Political Unions (Fisher) ,70
Pollard, A.F., 21, 189, 236
Popitz, Johannes, 288
Power, Sir John, 161, 185, 189
Powicke, Sir Maurice, 89, 308-09
Pratt, Sir John, 163
Prevention of War, The (Kerr and

Curtis), 61
Price, Sir Henry, 164, 188, 190
Primrose, Constance, 19
Problem of the Commonwealth, The

(Curtis, ed.), 64, 65 126, 155
Project of A Commonwealth, 126
Prothero, George W., 26, 143, 145,

183
Prothero, Rowland Edmund (Lord

Ernie), 8, 9, 21, 26, 27-28, 142,

144, 178, 227

Quarterly Review, The, 6, 15, 26,

138
Questions of the Hour (Milner), 122,

131
Quickswood, Baron. See Cecil, Lord

Hugh.

350 / Index

Radcliffe, Cyril John, 307
Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, 193
Rait, Robert S., 89, 90, 144
Raleigh, Thomas, 7, 9
Raleigh, Walter, 31
Rankeillour, Lord, 220, 221
Rappard, W.E., 250-51
Rayleigh, Lord, 32, 144
Reading, Lord, 198, 200, 216-17,

221
Reconstruction of the New Colonies
under Lord Milner, The (Wors-
fold), 73
Redmond, John, 180
Reed, Sir Stanley, 185, 206, 208
Reeves, William Pember, 138
Reminiscence of Arnold Toynbee

(Milner), 10
Reuters, 190

Review of Reviews, The, 1 1 , 39
Reynolds, Joshua, 31
Rhodes, Cecil, 3, 4, 12, 33, 64, 84,
127, 129, 237
"Confession of Faith," 34
establishment of British South

Africa Company, 38
Milner and, 51
secret society. See Rhodes secret

society.
Smuts and, 77

wills, 33-35, 36, 37, 38, 43. See
also, Rhodes Scholarships;
Rhodes Trust
"Rhodes crowd," 4
Rhodes House, 87
Rhodes Scholarships, 33, 34, 35, 64,

113, 151, 161
Rhodes Scholarships, The (Parkin),

36
Rhodes secret society, 3-4, 5, 33-50
Rhodes Trust, 5, 7, 8, 86, 87, 88
Ribbentrop, Joachin von, 275, 298-

99
Richardson, J.H., 195
Riddell, Lord, 178
Ridley, Edward, 26, 28
Ridley, Grace, 28
Ridley, Rosamond (Guest), 28
Robertson, Sir Charles Grant, 21
Robinson, Major General C.F., 286
Robinson, Geoffrey. See Dawson,
Geoffrey.

Robinson, High Commissioner Her-
cules, 44
Rockefeller Foundation, 189
Rose-Innes, Dorothy, 289
Rose-Innes, Helmuth, 289
Rose-Innes, Sir James, 289
Rosebery, Lord, 8, 17, 30, 41,
45, 48, 58, 87, 149
Rhodes Trustee, 34, 86
Rothschild, Lord, 34, 37, 38, 40,

45, 48, 109, 110, 135
Rothschild and Sons, 190
Round Table, The, 5, 82, 102, 113,
117-39, 161, 164, 167, 183, 242,
243, 244, 279, 282, 284, 290, 291,
292, 295

anniversary history, 82-83
Balfour Declaration, 158
editors, 53, 61, 67, 68, 75
India, 155, 205, 215, 217, 219
Ireland, 177
League of Nations, 251, 252,

254, 256, 259
See also Round Table Groups
Round Table Conference of Jews

Arabs, 174, 259
Round Table Groups, 4, 10, 82,
118-39, 150, 151
India, 203-05, 208, 214-19
passim
Rowell, N.W., 162, 191, 192
Rowton, Lord, 62
Royal Colonial Society, 127
Royal Empire Society, 127
Royal Institute of International
Affairs, 5, 10, 25, 55, 75, 80,
81, 104, 113, 114, 129, 161, 163,
168, 182-97
Journal, 54
Runciman, Lord, 285-86, 299
Runciman Mission, 285-86
Ruskin, John, 106
Russell, Lord John, 31

Sadler, Sir Michael, 137, 208
St. Leger, Frederick York, 44
Salisbury, Lord, 14, 15-18, 21, 71,
94, 107, 157, 246
All Souls, 22, 25
Cecil Bloc, 6, 20, 26, 27, 28, 29,
30

Index / 351

Curzon and, 24
Hardinge and, 24
India, 200, 209, 219
member of The Club and Gril-
lion's, 31

Salter, Sir James Arthur, 21, 57, 95,
143-44, 175, 230, 241, 243, 302,
304

appeasement, 272, 296
delegate to League of Nations,
257-58

Round Table, 123, 144
Royal Institute of International
Affairs, 194

Samuel, Sir Herbert, 153, 161, 162

Sankey, Lord, 26, 99

Sargant, E.B., 101

Scarbrough, Earl of, 20

Scheidemann, Philipp, 234

Schmidt, Paul, 288

Schumann, Frederick, 288

Schusnigg, Kurt von, 277

Scott, Ernest, 162

Scott, Walter, 31

Seeckt, Hans von, 247

Seeley, J.R., 8, 27-28, 43

Seeley's lecturers, 8, 43

Selborne, Earl of, 2nd, 12, 16

Selborne, Lord, 16, 17, 19, 48, 52,
54, 75, 76, 80, 138, 142, 144,
160, 178, 199, 209, 243, 308

Selborne Federation Dispatch, Jan-
uary 7, 1907, 76

Seton, Sir Malcolm, 143, 203, 210

Seton- Watson, R.W., 186

Shaw, Bernard, 137-38

Shaw, Flora. See Lugard, Lady.

Sheridan, Richard B., 31

Shippard, Sidney, 33, 34

Short History oj British Colonial
Policy (Egerton), 88

Sidgwick, Professor, 32

Simon, John, 21, 28, 57, 173, 175,
178, 230, 241, 243, 260, 265, 268,
269, 270, 275, 277, 295, 297, 300,
302

delegate to Imperial Confer-
ence, 159
India, 200, 213, 214, 219, 222
member of The Club and Gril-
lion's, 31

Simon Commission, 212, 213-14,

218
Sinclair, Sir Archibald, 284
Simpson, Sir John Hope, 196
Singh, Sir Sardar E., 164
Smillie, Robert, 131
Smith, A.L., 9, 89, 97, 101, 102,

139, 183, 258
Smith, Adam, 31

Smith, Arthur Lioenl Foster, 69, 97
Smith, Arthur Lionel Foster, 69, 97

141, 142, 259
India, 211-12, 214, 216, 217,
221
Smith, Mary, 97
Smithies, A., 162

Smuts, Jan C, 48, 53, 66, 77-79,
143, 147, 149, 152, 165-73 passim,
178, 231, 260, 263, 266-67, 272
attack on French militarism,

239-40, 244, 245
delegate to Imperial Confer-
ence, 157
League of Nationa, 250, 251,

258
Royal Institute of International
Affairs dinner, 190

Snell, Lord, 185, 221

Society for Psychical Research, 31-32

Society of the Elect, 3, 4, 39, 40, 43

Somervell, D.C., 95

Somervell, Sir Donald, 21, 95, 159,

162, 175, 186, 230, 219, 302
"Souls, The," 31
South Africa, 5, 12-13, 73-80, 107-

12

South African Institute of Interna-
tional Affairs, 73

Sparrow, John H.A., 305, 306

Spectator, The, 138

Spender, J. A., 259

Stamp, Sir Josiah, 241

Stanhope, Edward, 88

Stanley, Dean, 31

Stanley, Oliver, 200

Stanley, Sir Robert, 142

Stansgate, Viscount, 216

State, The, 5, 73, 75, 82

Statute of Westminister and Domin-
ion Status, The (Wheare), 158-59

352 / Index

Stead, William T., 3, 4, 6, 34-38

passim, 44, 107, 109-10
in prison, 37
Milner and, 13, 41, 51
opposition to Boer War 35, 45
Pall Mall Gazette, 11, 12, 41
Rhodes Trustee, 34, 37-38, 40-
41
Steed, H.W., 102
Steel-Maitland, Sir Arthur H.D.

Ramsay, 21, 95-96, 141, 142, 144,

145, 160, 186, 222, 227, 228
Stephen, Leslie, 94
Stern Brothers, 190
Stevenson, Sir Daniel, 187
Stevenson Chair of International

Relations, London, 100, 188
Stewart, W. Downie, 162, 163, 191-

92, 263
Stopford, Robert J., 187, 196, 306
Streit, Clarence, 260, 262, 283,

284
Stresemann, Gustav, 244, 245, 246,

248
Strutt, Edward, 144
Stubbs, Bishop, 31
Study of History, A (Toynbee), 191,

309
Sumner, Benedict H., 91, 93, 96,

145, 185, 194, 196, 219, 258, 303
Survey of British Commonwealth

Affairs (Hancock), 158
Survey of British Commonwealth

Relations, 188
Survey of International Affairs, 124,

187-88, 213
Sutton, Eric, 248
Swinton, Sir Ernest, 21, 153

Tilly, J.A.C., 183

Times, The, 5, 6, 8, 23, 42-43,

53, 62, 67, 75, 76, 82, 101-16,

140, 161, 259, 296, 301-02
"Times crowd," 4
Times History of the South African

War, 67, 102
Times Literary Supplement, The,

115
Toynbee, Arnold, 7, 10-11, 49, 56,

57, 131, 139, 186, 187, 191, 194,

197, 309
influential ideas, 6, 10, 29, 123
Toynbee, Arnold J. (nephew of

Arnold Toynbee), 7, 161, 162,

184, 188, 195, 196, 273
Toynbee, Mrs. Arnold J., 32
Toynbee, V.M. (Boulter), 187
"Toynbee group," 6
Toynbee Hall, 7, 9, 131, 259
Treaty of Versailles, 261, 265, 266,

278, 281, 292
Trott zu Solz, Adam von, 290
Tweedsmuir, Lord, See Buchan,

Lord.

Ulster Volunteers, 176-77

Union Now, 283

Union of South Africa. See South

Africa.
Union of South Africa, The,

(Brand), 59-60
Unionist Party, 18, 30
University College of Wales,

Aberystwyth, 100, 194
University of Toronto, 100
University of Toronto Conference,

1933, 162

Tarr, E.J., 162, 163, 164
Temperley, Harold, 104, 168, 169,

183, 185
Tennant, Laura, 19, 201, 245
Tennant, Margot, 19, 31, 201, 245
Thesiger, Francis (Guest), 28-29
Thesiger, Frederic John Napier. See

Chelmsford, Lord.
Thomas, General George, 288
Thompson, Dorothy, 289
Thompson, John, 219
Thursfield, Rear Admiral H.G., 195

Vancouver Province, The, 167
VanderByl, P., 163
Vansittart, Sir Robert, 279
Versailles Peace Treaty. See Treaty

of Versailles
Vickers-Armstrong, 190
Vincent, Edgar (Lord D'Aberon),

244-48
Viscount Halifax (Johnson), 211, 218
Von. For names beginning with Von

see second part of name.
Vranek, JiriF., 188

Index / 353

Walker, Eric A., 162

Walker, James, 163

Wallace, Donald Mackenzie, 116

Walrond, Main Swete Osmond, 63,

180
Walter, Arthur F., 107
Walter, John, III, 107
War and National Finance (Brand),

122 235
Ware,' Fabian, 63, 75, 158
Weaver, J.R.H., 99
Webb, Sidney, 131
Webster, C.K., 185, 188, 195, 197
Weizmann, Chaim, 173, 185
Wellesley, Lord Charles, 54
Wells, H.G., 37
Wemyss, Earl of, 10th, 18, 20, 178,

221
Wemyss, Earl of, 11th, 19
Wemyss, Dora, 19
Wemyss family, 15
Westminster, Duke of, 1st, 30
Westminster, Lord, 221
Westminster Bank, 190
Westminster Gazette, 12, 259
Wheare, K.C., 21, 158-59
Wheeller-Bennett, John W., 187,

276, 288, 303

delegate to conference on
British Commonwealth rela-
tions, 161
in United States, 305, 306, 307
Royal Institute of International
Affairs, 185
White Papers, 172-73, 174, 175-76

218, 219-20
Whitehall Securities Corporation,

190
Whitmore, Charles A., 9
Whyte, Sir Frederick, 39, 44, 164
Wiedemann, Captain, 285
Wilberforce, Bishop, 31
Wilde, Oscar, 31
Willert, Sir Arthur, 104-05, 259
Williams, Basil, 58-59, 71, 75, 76,

102, 137, 146
Williams, Sir J. Fischer, 194
Williamstown Institute of Politics,

161, 259
Willingdon, Lord, 59, 191, 198
Wilson, Sir Horace, 294, 297, 298,

299

Wilson, Woodrow, 233, 238, 239,

249, 251, 256
Windeyer, W.J.V., 162
Winnipeg Free Press, 166-67
Witzleben, Field Marshall von, 288
Wohl, Special Representative, 294
Wohlthat, Helmuth, 298, 299
Wolmer, Lord. See Selborne, Lord.
Wood, Charles, 72
Wood, Edward Frederick Lindley

Wood. See Halifax, Lord, 72
Wood, Edward Rogers, 86-87
Wood, Honourable Mary, 214
Woodhead Commission, 174
Woodsworth, J.S., 162
Woodward, Ernest Llewellyn, 21,

93, 96-97, 104, 152, 185, 190,

194, 310
World Commonwealth Movement,

150-51
World War; Its Cause and Cure

(Curtis), 164
Worsfold, William Basil, 62-63, 73,

76
Wylie, Francis, 86
Wyndham, George, 18, 19, 111, 184
Wyndham, Mrs. George (Countess

Grosvenor), 19, 20
Wyndham, Hugh A., 19, 54, 74,

163, 185, 187, 188, 196
Wyndham, Mary, 19, 20
Wyndham, Mary Caroline, 17
Wyndham, Maud (Lyttelton), 19,

54
Wyndham, Pamela, 19
Wyndham, Percy Scawen, 19
Wyndham family, 30

Young Plan of 1929, 241
Yui, D.Z.T., 192

Zetland, Lord, 19-20, 159, 199, 219

221, 223, 230
Zimmern, Sir Alfred, 5, 26, 89-90,
123, 133, 137, 143-49 passim,
264, 303

delegate to conference on
British Commonwealth rela-
tions, 163

354 / Index

Foreign Research and Press Ser- Affairs, 185, 186, 188, 191,

vice, 197 195, 197

League of Nations, 250, 252 Zionism, 170, 171-73

Royal Institute of International Zulueta, Francis de, 21

END

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